THE ESSENTIALS OF 

GRAMMAR AND 

COMPOSITION 



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Class _:5,Lii1l. 

Book ^i_ 

CopightN?. 

COPYRIGHT DEPOSrC 



THE ESSENTIALS 

OF GRAMMAR AND 

COMPOSITION 

BY 

W. F. WEBSTER 

Principal of the East High School, Minneapolis, Minnesota 
ASSISTED BY 

ALICE WOODWORTH COOLEY 




BOSTON, NEW YORK AND CHICAGO 

HOUGHTON MIFFLIN CO:\IPANY 
(Cf)e BitcrsiDe press ^ambriboe 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 

Unity in the Study of English Subjects 
English is a unit of study. Including, as it does, 
not only what is commonly called "language" in 
the lower grades, but spelling, reading, composition, 
and grammar, it is by far the most important sub- 
ject in our common schools. All parts of this great 
whole are very closely bound together; and the 
study of any one of these branches is the study of 
all. An understanding of grammar helps toward 
correct expression; a knowledge of the difficulties 
of composition lays a foundation for the true appre- 
ciation of literature; and literature itself is the best 
instructor in the art of graceful and powerful compo- 
sition. 

Importance of the Study of Composition 
The term language, in its u^al interpretation, 
means composition and grammar. Of these two, 
composition, or the art of expression, is the more 
important subject for study in elementary education. 
Every child, when he completes his common-school 
education, should be able to express correctly, either 
by writing or by word of mouth, the thoughts he 
has to exchange with his fellows. In social commu- 
nication with friends, in the world of business, and 
in the performance of his duty as a responsible 
citizen of this nation, the man with the ability to 

Copyright, 1904, 1905, and 1906, by Houghton, Mifflin and Company. Copyright, 1909, 
by William F. Webster. All rights i^esm:^^'^";,""^^ ^ ^^ 



Two CoDies Received 

MAY 3 \m 

.v Oopynant jintry ^ 
'r,Lvj;> Ci^ ^vXc. No. 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS iii 

say what he thinks is the master of him who has it 
not. It is becanse composition is regarded as of so 
great importance that it is found in all courses of 
study in constantly increasing amount. To-day in 
our best schools it is taught in some form from the 
day a child enters the kindergarten until he shines 
forth, a graduate of the high school. The custom 
which once prevailed, and still prevails in some 
schools, of ceasing to teach composition systemati- 
cally when the instruction in grammar begins is a 
grievous mistake. Better far, if need be, to reduce 
the amount of technical grammar than to give over 
to any branch the time that should be used in 
gaining the power of full, clear expression. 

Oral Composition not to he neglected 

Composition is often classified as written and oral. 
Oral composition has been too often disregarded; 
yet it has distinct advantages. To be able to say well 
five or ten sentences upon a definite topic is a great 
accomplishment, — one of inestimable value. Front- 
ing a large class, with a carefully wrought outline 
in hand, ready for use if needed, the boy who fre- 
quently speaks what he thinks about a subject 
makes surprising gains in courage, independence, 
and in the ability to give to his thoughts full and 
complete expression. 

Oral exercises have another peculiar advantage. 
Few, if any, children in the grammar grades lorite, 
"It is her" ; yet too few say, "It is she." Written 
composition cannot discover these common errors in 



iv SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 

speech ; and written composition can never correct 
them. Constant oral drill on the correct idioms, 
until the incorrect form wounds the ear like a blow, 
is the only way to be rid of the errors of common 
speech. To accomplish this requires patient practice 
in speaking the correct forms. Every day the class 
should read aloud simple idiomatic sentences ; and 
those children who are so unfortunate as to possess 
a number of these " devils of speech " should work 
earnestly that they may cast them out. Have such 
a one repeat the correction of his besetting error, 
even to seventy times seven times, if so be he can 
gain a victory. There are in this book many exer- 
cises for the purpose of purifying language of these 
vulgarisms ; but the very best sentences for this 
purpose are those the teacher makes to meet the 
needs of the community in which he labors. 

Life is the richest Quarry of Material for Com.position 

The subjects suggested for composition are drawn 
from the three most fruitful sources, — the other 
branches of study, literature, and life. For the first 
year, of the combined grammar and composition 
course there are included many subjects suggested 
by the study of geography ; and for the second 
year, many historical subjects have been used. The 
subjects given are by no means all that will suggest 
themselves to the wide-awake teacher; and the best 
for the time and place should be used, whether 
in the book or out of it. It is taken for granted 
that standard classics will be read ; and from these. 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS v 

several topics for themes have been selected. If the 
classics referred to should not be used, the teacher's 
ingenuity will suggest other subjects quite as good, 
in connection with the literature that is read. But 
the most fruitful source of live subjects is life itself. 
The activities, the plays, the sights and sounds in 
the midst of which the child dwells make to him 
the most vivid appeal. Life is fascinating ; and a 
child cannot long refrain from talking about the 
great world pulsing around him. 

Value of Grammar as a Study 
It has already been said that the study of grammar 
is of great assistance in acquiring purity of speech. 
It would be impossible for impressionable youth to 
hear and read beautiful sentences each day without 
being better for the experience. But when there is 
added to this contact with beautiful expressions, an 
analysis of them that discovers how they are formed, 
composition itself is really being studied. Again, the 
faults in our speech are nearly all grammatical errors ; 
and a vigorous application of the rules of grammar 
goes far toward rooting up these weeds of con- 
versation. Moreover, a study of the relations of the 
parts of an English sentence lays a foundation for 
the study of the grammar of any language ; for the 
expression of thought, in whatever language, follows 
w^ell-established lines. The study of grammar, then, 
prepares the student for the study of any other lan- 
guage ; it is one of the means of ridding our com- 
mon speech of some of its worst errors ; and it 



vi SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 

affords the student models of elegant and powerful 
sentence-structure. 

A still more valuable result of the study of gram- 
mar IS the gain in the student's reasoning power. 
To determine the attributes of each element of a 
sentence, or of each part of speech ; to recognize 
under all guises and masks the real value and func- 
tion of a word, requires close and careful thinking. 
The instructor who teaches grammar with this end 
in view will train pupils to a shrewdness that looks 
below the surfaces of things, and to a care for cor- 
rect expression that will help to lay the foundation 
of lasting success. • 

":77ie Essentials of Grammar and Composition^^ 
is especially planned for use in those systems of 
schools where it is desired to reduce the instruction in 
grammar to its simplest form, and yet provide a good 
foundation for the pupil's understanding of the laws 
of composition and for his appreciation of literature. 
All unnecessary terms and classifications are omitted, 
and the presentation and the definitions are couched 
in the simplest language compatible with clearness 
and accuracy. This simplification of the grammar 
makes it possible to give greater attention to the 
work in composition. 

Instead of being injected into the grammar text, 
and so breaking the continuity of the subject, the 
composition lessons are placed at the back of the 
book, references throughout the grammar text indi- 
cating when they may be used. 



CONTENTS 

Suggestions to Teach f^ks ii 

I. The Sentence and its Elements 1 

Sentence defined. 

Classification of sentences according to use: declara- 
tive, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory. 
Subject and Predicate. 
Complements. 
Modifiers. 

II. Classification of Sentences 56 

Review of Sentences classified as to use. 
Sentences classified as to form : simple, compound, 
complex. Adjective, adverbial, and noun clauses. 

III. Nouns and Pronouns 86 

Their classification and declension. 

IV. Adjectives 121 

Their classification and comparison. 

V. Verbs 128 

Their classification and inflection. 

VI. Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions . . 187 

VII. Lessons in Composition 197 

Index 261 

Acknowledgments for kind permission to use extracts from the writings 
of James Wliitcomb Riley are due to Charles Scribner's Sons and to the 
Bobbs-Merrill Co. ; of D. L. Sharp, to the Century Co. ; of Henry van 
Dyke, to the author and to Charles Scribner's Sons. 



GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

CHAPTER I 

THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 
Section 1. An Idea 

I. A teacher said to her class, " I have something 
in my hand. I wish you to guess what it is. It is 
white. It is smalL It is round. It is useful. It is 
light. Who can guess what it is ? " " It is a crayon/' 
answered one o£ the pupils. The w^ords she had 
used — small, white, round, useful, light — express 
qualities, or attributes, of crayon. All these attri- 
butes make up a picture, or idea, of a crayon. Such 
a mind-picture is called an idea. 

Exercisp: 

II. Tell what attributes unite to make the idea of 
arrow, baseball, book, tree, gun, mountain, forest, stream, 
ice, stone. Be sure to select attributes which, added 
together, wdll make a good mental picture of each 
object. 

Exercise 

III. On a small piece of paper write the names of 
ten attributes of an^ object. Select good ones. Be 
sure not to name the object. Exchange these slips. 
Each may then tell the name of the object described 
on the slip of paper he has. 



2 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

Section 2. A Sentence 

I. When any one thinks, " The rose is fragrant," 
he unites the idea of " rose " with the idea of " fra- 
grance." Such a union of two ideas makes a thought. 
When this thought is expressed in words, these 
words form a sentence. " The rose is fragrant," then, 
IS a sentence. 

A sentence ^ is the expression of a complete thought in 
words. 

Exercise 

II. Make sentences about the ten objects named 
in Section I, Exercise II. 

Section 3. Kinds of Sentences 

I. In the last exercise you doubtless made state- 
ments about the different objects. You could as well 
have asked questions about some of the things ; as, 
"Is the arrow straight ?" Besides making statements 
and asking questions, a person may give a command ; 
as, " John, throw me the ball." 

When a sentence simply tells, or declares, a fact, 
it is called a declarative sentence ; when it asks a 
question, it is called an interrogative sentence ; when 
it states a command, it is called an imperative sen- 
tence. 

A declarative, interrogative, or imperative sen- 
tence may become exclamatory when it expresses 
strong emotion ; as, " Hold the fort ! I am coming ! " 
" How brightly breaks the morning ! " 

1 For the rule for the use of capital letters, see page 259, 1, 1. 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 3 

A declarative sentence is one that states a fact. 

An interrogative sentence is one that asks a question. 

An imperative sentence is one that gives a command. 

An exclamatory sentence is one that expresses strong 
emotion. 

Exercise 

II. Tell what kind of sentence each of the fol- 
lowino- is. 

1. Twinkle, twinkle, little star! 

2. How I wonder what you are! 

3. Where are you going, pretty maid ? 

4. Lincoln was a kind man. 

5. Can Henry kick the ball ? 

6. Bring us a drink. 

7. What have you in your pocket ? 

8. Robinson Crusoe became a man of many trades. 

9. Roll on, thou deep and dark-blue ocean, roll! 

10. The trout flashes through the crystal water. 

11. James is a busy newsboy. 

12. Which is the great commandment.'^ 

13. The Lord is my shepherd. 

14. Praise ye the Lord ! 

15. A soft answer turneth away wrath. 

Section 4. Subject and Predicate 

I. In the sentence, ^' Rover is playful," the word 
"Rover" names that of which something is thought 
and said ; it is called the subject of the sentence. 
The word " playful " tells what attribute is asserted, 
or predicated,^ of the subject " Rover" ; it is called 
the predicate attribute^ of the sentence. The word 

^ For the meaning of these words, see the dictionary. The defini- 
tions will help you to understand what these words mean in gram- 



4 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

" is " asserts the relation existing between the sub- 
ject and the predicate attribute. It is used to link, 
or couple, the subject and predicate attribute ; it is 
called the copula/ The copula and the predicate 
attribute form the predicate of the sentence. 

The subject of a sentence names that of which some- 
thing is asserted. 

The predicate of a sentence is that part of it which 
asserts something of the subject. 

The predicate attribute of a sentence names that which 
is asserted of the subject. 

The copula of a sentence asserts the relation between 
the subject and the predicate attribute. 

Exercisp: 
II. Tell what kind of sentence each of the fol- 
lowing is, and select the subject arid the predicate. 
Separate the predicate into copula and predicate 
attribute. 

1. The Amazon is broad. 

2. Plains are level. 

3. The Andes are high. 

4. The Indians were friendly. 

5. The rose is fragrant. 

6. Pines are healthful. 

7. The forest is peaceful. 

8. The colonists grew fearful. 

9. The sea looks rough. 

10. Sea-breezes are refreshing. 

11. Is the frost here? 

1 For the meaning of this word, see the dictionary. The defini- 
tions will help you to understand what this word means in gram- 
mar. 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 6 

12. The woods are sere. 

13. The blue jay is noisy. 

14. Where are the flowers ? 

15. A child will he happy. 

16. Beethoven was deaf. 

17. Milton was blind. 

18. Byron was lame. 

19. Holmes was humorous. 

20. Emerson was wise. 

21. Lowell was witty. 

22. Is wrestling exciting? 

23. Singing is enjoyable. 

24. The settlers became suspicious. 

25. Were their arrows poisoned ? 

26. How beautiful are the flowers ! 

Exercise 
in. Supply copulas and predicate attributes for 
the following subjects. 

1. My mother 4. Dickens 7. Rivers 10. Warships 

2. The birds 5. Trees 8. The leaves 11. Rover 

3. New York 6. America 9. A graceful spire 

Exercise 
IV. Supply subjects and copulas for the following 
predicate attributes. 



I. easy 


4. brilliant 


7. expensive 


10. helpful 


2. high 


5. noble 


8. interesting 


II. light 


3. jolly 


6. soft 


9. honorable 


12. wide 



Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 197, Sec- 
tion 1. 



6 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

Section 5. Nouns 

I. In Section 4, Exercise II, think what each sub- 
ject names. Tell which subjects name persons; ac- 
tions ; objects in nature. 

Though these words are not all names of things 
which we can see, hear, or know through the senses, 
they are all names of things about which we can 
think. They are names of objects.^ Names of objects 
are nouns. 

A noun is a word that names an object. 

Exercise 

II. In Section 4, Exercise II, select the nouns, 
and give the reason for calling each a noun. This 
exercise may be continued with other sentences. 

Section 6. Pronouns 

I. (a) Watt invented the steam engine, but he did not 
perfect it. 
. (b) To be square in sports is sometimes hard, but it 
is manly. 
(c) Blessed is the man who has found his work. 

What is a noun ? What word in (a) represents the noun 
*' Watt" without naming him ? What word means "steam 
engine," but does not name it ? Neither of the words is a 
noun, because neither names an object, though each repre- 
sents an object. In (b) what one word stands for the words, 
"To be square in sports" ? What words in (c) represent 
objects without naming them as nouns do ? All these words 
that stand for nouns are pronouns.^ 

1 An object is " anything that is perceived, known, thought of, or 
signified." — Century Dictionary. 

^ Look in a dictionary for meaning of pro. 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 7 

« 

The difference between nouns and pronouns may 
be understood if you keep in mind the fact that when 
a noun stands all alone, it names a definite object. 
" Football," for example, names a very popular game; 
"Benedict Arnold" names a very unpopular man. 
These words are nouns. " It " or '^ that " or " they " 
does not suggest immediately any definite thing. 
"I do not care for it " may mean that I do not care 
for some dish at table, or for football, or for one of 
a thousand other things. A noun names an object; 
but a pronoun does not name an object ; it only 
represents it. 

The pronouns most often used are the different 
forms of I, you, he, she, it, who, which, what, that. 
(See Section 63.) 

A pronoun is a word that represents an object without 
naming it. 

Exercise 

II. Select the nouns and pronouns in the follow- 
ing sentences. 

1. If you would be well served, you must serve yourself. 

2. Placing her hand on the cushion, her foot in the hand 

of her husband, 
Gayly, with joyous laugh, Priscilla mounted her 
palfrey. 

3. "Nothing is wanting now," he said, with a smile, 

"but the distaff; 
Then you would be in truth my queen, my beautiful 

Bertha." 
4- Every hour has its task or pleasure. 
5. Down through the golden leaves the sun was pouring 

his splendor. 



8 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

6. The little meadow violet lifts its cup of blue. 

7. We deceive ourselves oftener than others deceive us. 

8. The stream wears a smooth bed for itself. 

9. For he who fights and runs away 
May live to fight another day. 

10. Oh, sleep! it is a gentle thing, 
Beloved from pole to pole. 

11. He who ascends to mountain-tops shall find 

The loftiest peaks most wrapped in clouds and snow. 

12. The plowman homeward plods his weary way, 
And leaves the world to darkness and to me. 

13- He was chubby and plump — a right jolly old elf; 
I laughed when I saw him, in spite of myself; 
A wink of his eye, and a twist of his head. 
Soon gave me to know I had nothing to dread. 

He sprang to his sleigh, to his team gave a whistle. 
And away they all flew like the down of a thistle. 

Exercise 
III. Frame ten sentences, using the following pro- 
nouns: I, themselves, that, which, whom, it, her, this, 

my, him. 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 199, Sec- 
tion 2. 

Section 7. Nouns and Pronouns 

I, Select the nouns and pronouns in the two para- 
graphs beginning at the bottom of page 208 ; and 
name the object which each pronoun represents. 

Exercise 

II. Separate the sentences below into their two 
parts, subject and predicate. Then separate the 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 9 

predicate into its two elements, copula and predicate 
attribute. This is called the analysis of a sentence. 

Model Analysis. " Example is the school of mankind " 
is a declarative sentence ; — a sentence, because it is the 
expression of a complete thought in words; declarative, 
because it states a fact. 

"Example" is the subject, because it names that of 
which something is asserted. 

" Is the school of mankind" is the predicate, because it 
asserts something of the subject. 

''The school of mankind" is the predicate attribute, 
because it names that which is asserted of the subject. 

"Is" is the copula, because it asserts the relation be- 
tween the subject and the predicate attribute. 

Model for Written Analysis 

SUBJECT PREDICATE 



COPULA PREDICATE ATTRIBUTE 

Example is the school of mankind 

Edison is a great inventor 

1. Edison is a great inventor. 

2. Mahogany is a beautiful wood. 

3. Florence Nightingale was a noble woman. 

4. Automobiles are a recent invention. 

5. Lowell was the son of a minister. 

6. Pennsylvania is the coal-bin of the United States. 
7- Rome was the capital of the world. 

8. Lew Wallace is the author of " Ben Hur." 

9. Shakespeare is the greatest author of all time. 

10. Gold is the standard of the world's money. 

11. Every flower is a hint of God's beauty. 

12. No good thing is failure. 
13- No bad thing is success. 



10 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 200, Sec- 
tion 3. 

Section 8. Group of Words as Subject 

I. In the sentences of the preceding lessons, the 
subjects have been nouns or pronouns. Study the 
sentences in this lesson to find whether the subject 
is always a noun or a pronoun. 

(a) To be up and doing is a joy. 

(b) Whatever Abraham Lincoln said was earnest and 

sincere. 

(c) To feel an honest joy at the success of another is 

noble. 
In (a), what is a joy? What words, then, express the 
subject of the thought? Is there a noun in the subject? 
In (b), the assertion is that something was earnest and sin- 
cere. What ? Repeat the group of words used to express 
the subject of the thought. What does (c) assert is noble ? 
What, then, is the subject of the sentence? 

In some sentences, the subject is not a noun or a 
pronoun ; it is a group of words. All the words of 
the group are required to name, or represent, that 
of which something is asserted. 
Exercise 

II. Give both the oral and the written analysis of 
the sentences below, following the model in Section 
7. Ask yourself these questions : — 

What is the subject of the thought ? 
What is asserted of the subject? 
What word joins the subject with the predicate 
attribute ? 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 11 

1. Well heo'un is ojood. 

2. Well (lone is better. 

3. The cloudy sky is sad and gray. 

4. To catch fish in a tub is unsportsmanlike. 

5. What Washington did was wise. 

6. November woods are bare and still. 

7. To guess and to know are two different things. 

8. Not to weep over a dish of peeled onions is difficult. 

9. Silence is a great peacemaker. 

10. To gossip about one's neighbors is a common, but 

contemptible, fault. 

11. Helen Hunt Jackson was the Indians' friend. 

12. To be angry with a door or a woodbox is boylike. 

13. Slow and steady wins the race. 

Exercise 
III. Write five sentences, with copulas and predi- 
cate attributes, and with nouns as subjects. Write 
five more with groups of words as subjects. Be ready 
to separate these sentences into their three elements. 
Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 201, Sec- 
tion 4. 

Section 9. Copula and Predicate Attribute 
United 

I. (a) The brook is murmuring. (f) The brook murmurs. 

(b) The waters are dancing. (g) The waters dance. 

(c) A storm was raging. (h) A storm raged. 

(d) Twilight is deepening. (i) Twilight deepens. 

(e) The owl is hooting. (j) The owl hoots. 

In (a), (b), (c), (d), and (e), point out each copula and 
each predicate attribute, two separate words in each sen- 
tence. Opposite each sentence is another which asserts 



12 



GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 



the same attribute of the same subject. In (f), the attribute, 
'* murmuring," is asserted of the brook just as truly as in 
(a). In (g), what is asserted of the subject ? In (h) ? (i) ? 
(j) ? What one word, then, in each of the last five sen- 
tences, both asserts and tells what attribute is asserted ? 

The union of the copula with the predicate attri- 
bute gives a new kind of predicate. So far the pre- 
dicates have contained the copula and predicate at- 
tribute as separate words. These same elements are 
to be found in predicates of this new^ kind as in the 
first; but the difference is this, — that in this second 
kind of predicate the copula and the attribute are 
united in one word. 



SUBJECT 

The tide 
The wind 

SUBJECT 

The tide 
The wind 



PREDICATE 



COPULA 

was 
is 



PREDICATE ATTRIBUTE 



rising 
rising 



PREDICATE 

rose 
rises 



Exercise 
II. Unite the copula and the predicate attribute 
of each of the following sentences into one word. 
Analyze the sentences you have made, using the fol- 
lowing model. 

Model. " Mozart composes " is a declarative sentence ; 
a sentence, because . . . ; declarative, because . . . 

*' Mozart" is the subject, because it names that of which 
something is asserted. 

"Composes" is the predicate, because it asserts some- 
thing of the subject. 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 13 

1. Mozart was composing. 

2. Raphael was painting. 

3. Angelo was designing. 

4. We are reciting. 

5. The tide was rising. 

6. Rain was falling. 

7- Washington was praying. 

8. Trees are orrowincj. 

9. Maize is sprouting. 

10. The bells are ringing. 

11. The snow is melting. 

12. The church was burning. 
13- The fog was thickening. 



14- The whistle was blowing. 

15. Danger was threatening. 

16. The enemy was retreating. 

17. The settlers are returning. 

18. Men are working. 

19- Women were weeping. 
20. Duty is calling. 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 202, Sec- 
tion 5. 

Section lO. Verbs 

I. (a) The sky is clouded. 

(b) The clouds seem threatening. 

(c) The wind whistles. 

(d) The rain will be welcome. 

All these sentences contain subject, copula, and predi- 
cate attribute. In one of the sentences given, the word that 
asserts also tells what is asserted. Read it, and point out 
the word that asserts and also contains the predicate 
attribute. In each of the other sentences, point out the 
word or the group of words that asserts the relation be- 



14 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

tween the subject and the predicate attribute. Is it pos- 
sible to make a sentence without a word that asserts ? A 
word used to assert is called a verb.^ 

Most verbs do some other work besides uniting the sub- 
ject and predicate attribute. Is, in its various forms, is the 
only verb whose use may be solely to connect the subject 
and predicate attribute ; it is generally a pure copula. 

The verbs most often used to connect subject and 
predicate attribute are is, are, seems, becomes, looks, 
appears, grows, tastes, and feels. 

In which sentence do you find more than one word used 
to make the assertion ? A group of words, then, may be 
used just like a single word in making an assertion. Such 
a group is called a verb-phrase. 

In saying that a verb is a word that asserts, it is intended 
to regard a question or a command as a kind of assertion. 

A verb is a word that asserts. 

A verb-phrase is a group of words that asserts. 

Exercise 
II. In the following sentences, separate the sub- 
ject and predicate. Tell whether the copula and 
predicate attribute are separate, or united in one 
w^ord. 

1. The violet is sweet. 

2. Pocahontas was an Indian girl, 

3. To do one's best is worthy. 

4. The cost of crown jewels seems fabulous. 

5. That great men do silly things at times is true. 

6. Robins run. 

7. Woodpeckers climb. 

^ Look in a dictionary for the derivation of the word verb. Do 
you know any reason why this name should be selected for the 
asserting word of a sentence ? 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 15 

8. The monkey chatters. 

9. The sun sets. 

10. The wind dies. 

11. The world seems silent. 

12. The cock is crowing, 
The stream is flowing, 
The small birds twitter, 
The lake doth glitter. 

The green field sleeps in the sun. 

Section 11. Review 

What is a sentence ? Can you say a sentence, or 
must it be written ? What are the three kinds of sen- 
tences you have learned ? What two elements are 
found in every sentence? What is the subject of a 
sentence? Is it always just one w^ord ? What kinds 
of words are usually found as subjects? Define a 
noun. Define a pronoun. What is the difference be- 
tw^een a noun and a pronoun ? What is the predicate 
of a sentence? What two elements combined make 
the predicate? Are they always separate words? 
What class of words is found in every predicate ? 
Define a verb. Why is the verb the most important 
class of words ? What is a copula ? a predicate at- 
tribute? 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 203, Sec- 
tion 6. 

Section 12. Complements 

I. Write in two groups the sentences in Section 
10, Exercise II. In one group, write the sentences 
containing predicates consisting of a verb and a 



16 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

predicate attribute; in the other group, place the 
sentences containing predicates consisting of a verb 
alone. In sentences where the verb alone makes a 
complete assertion about the subject, the verb is 
called a complete verb. 

In the first group of sentences, does the verb 
alone tell what is asserted of the subject? Read, 
these sentences aloud, omitting all words that follow 
the verbs. Each sentence, as read, lacks one of the 
three necessary elements of every sentence: it has 
no predicate attribute. The verb alone does not make 
the complete assertion about the subject. Such a 
verb is called an incomplete verb. Verb-phrases may 
be complete or incomplete the same as verbs. 

It is plain that a third element must always be 
added to an incomplete verb to tell what is asserted 
of the subject. Since this element completes the 
meaning of the verb, it is called a complement. 

A complement is an element of a sentence that com- 
pletes the assertion made by an incomplete verb. 

The word in the predicate naming an attribute 
of the subject is called an attribute complement. 

An attribute complement is a complement that names 
an attribute of the subject. 

Give sentences to show that the attribute comple- 
ment is also a predicate attribute. 
. Exercise 

II. Analyze the sentences below, following the 
model in Section 7. Use the term attribute comple- 
ment instead of predicate attribute. 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 17 

1. Experience is expensive. 

2. Tlie plays of Shakespeare are instructive. 

3. To talk with great men is a liberal education. 

4. Honesty is the best policy. 
5- Rubies are scarce. 

6. Is iron the most useful metal ? 

7. Good manners are a source of wealth. 

8. The Cyclops were terrible giants. 

9. To study the stars is fascinating. 

10. What time we sleep is well spent. 

11. To use a dictionary is a sign of culture. 

12. Was Jenny Lind a beautiful singer.^ 
13- Snow is delicate crystals. 

14. To cheat an ignorant man is dishonorable cowardice. 

15. Are the birds happy? 

16. The way was pathless and long. 
17- The goal was more dreary yet. 

18. Their only food Avas a pittance of Indian corn. 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 203, Sec- 
tion 7. 

Section 13. The Object Complement 

I. (a) March brings wind. 

(b) April brings showers. 

(c) April showers bring May flowers. 

(d) Longfellow wrote Hiawatha. 

(e) He loved children. 

(f) Many hands make light work. 

(g) The nightingale's notes close the eye of day. 
(h) The dead leaves fall. 

In this lesson, there is only one complete verb. Find it. 
Point out the incomplete verb in each of the other sen- 
tences. Tell what words are used to complete the meaning 



18 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

of each. Show that each of these complements names the 
receiver of the action asserted by the verb. Such a comple- 
ment is called an object^ complement, or, very often, sim- 
ply an object. 

An object complement is a complement that names the 
receiver of the action. 

Exercise 

II. Write five sentences containing predicates con- 
sisting of a verb and an attribute complement ; five 
sentences in which a complete verb makes the pre- 
dicate ; five sentences in which the following words 
shall be used as objects : honor, Cape Horn, the 
stars, rainbow, Alexander Hamilton. 

Exercise 

III. Analyze the following sentences according to 
the model given. 

Model. " The nightingale's notes close the eye of day" 
is a declarative sentence ; a sentence, because . . . ; de- 
clarative, because ... 

"The nightingale's notes" is the subject, because . . . 

"Close the eye of day" is the predicate, because . . . 

"Close" is the verb, because . . . 

"The eye of day" is the object complement, or object, 
because it names the receiver of the action asserted by the 
verb. 

Model for Written Analysis 

Subject The nightingale's notes 

Predicate close the eye of day 

Verb close 

Object Complement the eye of day 

^ Look in a dictionary and learn the meaning of the Latin words 
from which the word object is derived. 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 19 

1. Who wrote the Declaration of Independence? 

2. The moon causes the tides. 

3. Edison invented the phonograph. 

4. Some persons inherit great wealth. 

5. Are they unfortunate ? 

6. Wealth is a doubtful fortune. 

7. Gladstone was an eminent scholar. 

8. Did Pocahontas save Captain John Smith ? 

9. Louis XIV was a spendthrift. 

10. Health is man's greatest wealth. 

11. The real heroes of the war are the " great, brave. 

patient, nameless People." 

12. The sweetest type of heaven is home. 

13- Every great thought alters the world. 

14- The top of honor is a slippery place. 

15- One spring wind unbinds the mountam snow. 

16. The great mind knows the power of gentleness. 

17. A small leak will sink a ship. 

18. Kindness shall win my love. 
19- The old clock of the town 

Strikes night's last hour. The morning's crown 
Touches the silence. 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 204, Sec- 
tion 8. 

Section 14. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs 

(a) Autumn paints the maples. 

(b) The maples are painted by Autumn. 

(c) The bluebirds sing sweet songs of spring. 

(d) Sweet songs of spring are sung by the bluebirds. 
fe) Fresh winds purify the air. 

(f) The air is purified by fresh winds. 



20 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

Have both sentences of each pair the same meaning? 
In both, is the action performed by the same persons or 
things ? Show that each verb asserts an action received by 
an object. In which sentence of each pair does the object 
complement name the receiver of the action ? In the other 
sentence, the same receiver of the same action is named by 
what element ? 

All these verbs assert actions received by objects; 
they are called transitive verbs/ In the sentences, 
the receiver of the action is named by the subject 
or by the object complement. A verb is transitive, 
then, if the subject or the object complement names 
the receiver of the action asserted. 

Not all verbs assert action ; and of those that do, 
not all assert action received by an object. If a verb 
does not assert action received by an object, it is not 
transitive, and is called an intransitive verb. Study 
the following sentences : — 

(a) The laughing streams awake. 

(b) Our mother was a beautiful girl. 

(c) Her word is truth. 

(d) Friends cheer. 

(e) Coleridge talked. 

Point out the verbs that assert action. Is the action 
asserted by any of these verbs received by an object.'' 
Point out the verbs that do not assert action. Are any of 
these verbs, then, transitive ? 

A transitive verb is one that asserts an action received 
by an object. 

An intransitive verb is one that does not assert an action 
received by an object. 

^ Look in a dictionary for the meaning of the word transitive. 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 21 

Verb-phrases may be transitive or intransitive the 
same as verbs. 

Section 15. Two Uses of Same Verbs 

I. In the following sentences, note the different 
uses of the same verb. 

(a) The fire burned in the grate. 

(b) The fire burned the child's fingers. 

(c) The child's fingers were burned by the fire. 

(d) Millet painted. 

(e) He painted the Angelas. 

(f) The Angelas v^as painted by Millet. 

(g) Shakespeare wrote. 

(h) He wrote the world's greatest dramas. 

(i) The world's greatest dramas were written by 
Shakespeare. 

Which verbs are transitive ? Which intransitive ? Give 
reason in each case. The use, then, is what makes the verb 
transitive or intransitive. 

Exercise 

II. Classify the verbs in Section 13, Exercise III, 
as transitive or intransitive. 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 205, Sec- 
tion 9. 

Section 16. The Objective Complement 

I. The following sentences show that the meaning 
of a sentence may be changed by changing the order 
of the words. In one sentence of each pair is an 
element of the sentence not yet studied. 



22 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

(a) Tom Sawyer painted the fence white , 

(b) Tom Sawyer painted the white fence. 

(c) Spring rains wash the gardens clean. 

(d) Spring rains wash the clean gardens. 

(e) Snow turns the brown fields white. 

(f) Snow turns the brown white fields. 

(g) A smile makes a sad heart glad. 
(h) A smile makes a glad sad heart. 

Do the two sentences of each pair have the same mean- 
ing ? Which sentence, (a) or (b), asserts that the fence was 
white as a result of the painting ? Which that it was white 
before it was painted ? What word in (c) and (d) is the 
object complement? What word names an attribute of 
" gardens" ? In which sentence is this attribute caused by 
the action named by the verb ? Show that the sentences 
(f) and (h) make impossible assertions. Show that the 
attribute of the object complement in (e) and in (g) is a 
result of the action expressed by the verb. 

If a word names an attribute of an object comple- 
ment, and this attribute is the result of the action 
asserted by the verb, it is called an objective comple- 
ment. 

Two questions must be answered to determine 
whether a word is an objective complement : — 

(1) Does the word name an attribute of the ob- 
ject complement ? 

(2) Is this attribute the result of the action named 
by the verb? 

If the word fulfills both these conditions, it is an 
objective complement. 

(a) I found the boy tired. 

(b) The work had made the boy tired. 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 



23 



In both these sentences, "tired" is an attribute of "the 
boy," the object. In (a), the attribute "tired" is not the 
result of the action named by the verb ; therefore it is not 
an objective complement. In (b), the attribute is the result 
of the action named by the verb ; therefore it is an objective 
complement. 

(c) Adversity made him humble. 

(d) Adversity (made humble) him. 

(e) Adversity humbled him. 

In (c), the verb "made" alone does not express the idea 
of the sentence. "Adversity made him" is not at all the 
thought intended. The verb "made" with the objective 
complement "humble" expresses the action upon him. 
This is seen in (d). This is just one action and can be 
expressed in one word, as it is in (e). So, too, the former 
sentence could be made to read "The work tired him," 
instead of "The work made him tired." 

An objective complement is a complement that names 
an attribute of the object resulting from the action asserted 
by the verb. 



SUBJECT 




PREDICATE 






VERB 


OBJECT 


OBJECTIVE 
COMPLEMENT 


Adversity 


made 


him 


humble 


Congress 


rendered 


the plan 


useless 


The death of 








the queen 


made 


Edward VII 


king 



When there is an objective complement in a sentence, is 
the verb transitive or intransitive.^ complete or incom- 
plete ? Can there be an objective complement without an 
object ? 

Exercise 

II. Analyze the sentences below, according to the 
model. 



24 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

Model. " Adversity made him humble " is a declarative 
sentence. 

"Adversity" is the subject, because . . . 

'* Made him humble" is the predicate, because . . . 

'* Made" is the verb, because ... 

"Him" is the object, because . . . 

" Humble" is an objective complement, because it names 
an attribute of the object resulting from the action asserted 
by the verb. 

Model for Written Analysis 
Subject Adversity 

Predicate made him humble 

Verb made 

Object him 

Objective Complement humble 

1. He pumped the well dry, 

2. The boy bent the stick straight. 

3. Good fortune has made him a fool. 

4. True hope is swift. * 

5. Gentians roll their fringes tight» 

6. Content makes poor men rich. 

7. Discontent makes rich men poor. 

8. The evening painted the snow a golden red. 

9. The mother made the child her idol. 

10. The people elected Johnson vice-president. 

11. The death of Lincoln made him president. 

12. Morning's laugh sets all the crags alight. 
13- A good carpenter planes boards smooth. 

14. A merry heart makes the heavy burden light. 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 206, Sec- 
tion 10. 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 25 

Section 17. Review 

I. You have now learned the four kinds of predi- 
cates. A predicate may be composed of a verb and 
an attribute complement ; a complete verb ; a verb 
and an object ; a verb, an object, and an objective 
complement. 

SUBJECT PREDICATE 

1. Subject Verb and Attribute Complement 

2. Subject Complete Verb 

3. Subject Incomplete Verb and Object 

4. Subject Incomplete Verb, Object, and 

Objective Complement 

Exercise 

II. Write a sentence illustrating each of the kinds 
of predicates named above. 

Exercise 

III. Separate the following sentences into subject 
and predicate. Name the elements that make the 
predicate. Classify the verbs as transitive or intran- 
sitive; complete or incomplete. 

1. A horse is a fine lady among animals. 

2. The voyage of the Mayflower proved a stormy one. 

3- The surf ran high. 

4- Iron is a manly metal. 

5- Jan van Eyck was the inventor of oil-painting. 
6. Nettle-seed needs no sowing. 

7- God made all pleasures innocent. 

8. A beautiful eye makes silence eloquent. 

9- An enraged eye makes beauty deformed. 

10. Kindness is the sunshine of the spiritual world. 

11. Education begins the gentleman. 



26 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

12. Reading, good company, and reflection finish 

him. 

13. The indulgence of revenge makes men savage and 

cruel. 

14. The greatest of virtues is common sense. 

15. The day seems long. 

16. I am the very pink of courtesy. 
17- Hope lives. 

18. The jay, the rook, the daw, 

Aid the full concert. 
19- The love-lorn nightingale mourneth. 

20. A thing of beauty is a joy forever; 
Its loveliness increases. 

21. I crown the winter king. 

22. Mont Blanc is crowned monarch of mountains. 

Section 18. A* Review of Complements 

What is a complete verb ? an incomplete verb ? 
What is one way in which an incomplete verb may 
be completed? What is an attribute complement? 
When completed by an attribute complement, is the 
verb transitive or intransitive ? What is another way 
in which an incomplete verb may be completed ? 
Define object complement. When completed by an 
object, is the verb transitive or intransitive? What 
is the third way of completing an incomplete verb ? 
Can you have an objective complement without hav- 
ing an object? Why not ? Define an objective com- 
plement ? What two questions must you always ask 
before you are sure that you have an objective com- 
plement? When completed by an object and an 
objective complement, is the verb transitive or in- 
transitive ? What is a transitive verb ? 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 27 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 209, Sec- 
tion 11. 

Section 19. Modifiers 

I. Sentences are made up of a subject and a pre- 
dicate ; and the predicate is a verb alone, or a verb 
combined Avitli an attribute, an object, or an objec- 
tive complement. These elements of a sentence are 
not usually found alone ; nearly always they are 
combined with other words. The next step is to 
separate these other words in the sentence from the 
elements of the sentence. 

(a) The lashing billows made a long report. 

(b) The setting sun slowly descended. 

If sentence (a) be stripped to its necessary elements, it 
will read "billows made report." Write these three words, 
and above each write the name of the element it is. What 
other words are used in the full sentence to modify, or 
change, the meaning of these simple elements ? Which 
word tells the kind of billows? "The" makes "lashing 
billows" more definite. What two words modify the 
meaning of the object "report".^ Read the two simple 
elements of sentence (b). Tell what words modify the 
meaning of each. 

A word that modifies the meaning of another 
word in a sentence is called a modifier. 

In (a), the complete subject of the sentence is not 
named until all the words, " The lashing billows," 
are used. The complete subject of (b) is "The 
setting sun." All the words that together name 
that of which something is asserted are called the 



28 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

complete subject. The one word which, stripped of its 
modifiers, forms the basis of the complete subject is 
called the simple subject.^ 

All the words in the assertion about the subject 
— the words that assert and those that tell what 
is asserted — are called the complete predicate. The 
elements of the complete predicate, stripped of modi- 
fiers, are included in what is called the simple predi- 
cate. 

Exercise 

II. In the following sentences, point out the modi- 
fiers, and tell what element of the sentence is modi- 
fied by each. 

1. Small courtesies sweeten life. 

2. Small cheer and great welcome make a very, merry 

feast. 

3. A thin meadow is soon mowed. 

4. The ripest fruit falls first. 

5. Somewhere the birds are singing evermore. 

6. I planted an old, dry, white, fairy seed. 

7. Its blossoms were magic golden flowers. 

8. The ripened fruit was a yellow jack-o'-lantern. 

9. One plant bore a very large Thanksgiving pie. 
10. The forest dropped its festal robes. 

Exercise 

III. Find or make sentences with simple predicates 
of the following form : (1) an unmodified copula 
and predicate attribute ; (2) an unmodified com- 

1 Sometimes the subject of a sentence is a group of words. (See 
Section 8.) When a group of words is the subject, it has the same 
use as a one-word subject, and the entire group is the simple sub- 
ject. 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 29 

plete verb ; (3) an unmodified verb and object ; and 
(4) an unmodified verb, object, and objective com- 
plement. 

Exercise 

IV. Frame definitions of complete subject, simple 
subject, complete predicate, and simple predicate. 
Give examples of each. 

Exercise 

V. Analyze the following sentences according to 
this model, and those previously given. 

Model. "The setting sun slowly descended" is a 

declarative sentence. 

The complete subject is " The setting sun." 

The complete predicate is "slowly descended." 

The simple subject is "sun," modified by the words 

"The" and "setting." 

The simple predicate is "descended," modified by the 

word "slowly." 

1. Fame is very cheap. 

2. The gentle dew refreshes the parched grass. 

3- Great men are sincere. 

4- God's glory is his goodness. 

5. A constant friend is rare. 

6. Evil news rides post. 

7- An undevout astronomer is mad. 

8. A free country life makes strong, true men. 

9- A lazy man is a bad man. 

10. Guilt has quick ears. 

11. Pride is seldom delicate. 

12. The lonely pine waves its sombre boughs. 

13- Friendship is a sheltering tree. 

14- A clear conscience is a soft pillow. 

15- A sunny spirit quickly dispels angry frowns. 



30 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 209, Sec- 
tion 12. 

Section 20. Adjectives 

I. Modifiers are divided into groups, or classes, 
according to their use. All the modifiers indicated 
by special type in the following sentences belong to 
the same class. 

(a) The still, warm, misty, dreamy Indian summer can- 

not be truly painted.^ 

(b) Grant, determined and persevering, had carried on 

a vigorous, daring, and offensive campaign. 

(c) These victories caused much suffering and the loss 

of many lives. 

What five words in (a) describe " summer" ? What two 
words in (b) describe " Grant". ^ What words describe 
"campaign"? All these words, then, are modifiers of 
nouns. They are called adjectives. 

In (c) there are some words that modify the meaning of 
nouns, and yet do not describe. These words, much, 
many, These, and the are also adjectives. 

An adjective is a word that modifies the meaning of a 
noun or a pronoun. 

Exercise 

II. Analyze the following sentences. Select the 
adjectives and tell what noun each modifies. 

1. The youth had a firm, manly voice. 

2. Tall oaks from little acorns grow^ 

3. This wonderful tree stood in the centre of an ancient 

wood. 

^ For punctuation of a series of words, seepage 259, V, 1. 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 31 



4. The tree had a huge, rough trunk, 

5. These fifty brave adventurers were Argonauts. 

6. Down came the terrible giants. 

7. An honest old soldier owned the gray cabin. 

8. An active, bustling woman kept the home. 

9. The two birds used the same broad, shallow dish. 

10. She dwelt among the untrodden ways 
Beside the springs of Dove. 

11. Earth with her thousand voices praises God. 

Section 21. Predicate Adjectives and Predicate 
Nouns 

I. (a) Sidney was courteous and kind. 

(b) He was a brave knight. 

(c) The Father of Waters is calm and untroubled. 

(d) It is deep and broad. 

What words express qualities of "Sidney".'^ What ele- 
ment of the sentence do they form ? In (c) and (d), what 
adjectives are used as attribute complements .^ In (b), what 
noun forms the attribute complement 'i 

An adjective is very often used as an attribute 
complement. When it is so used, it is often called a 
predicate adjective. 

When a noun is used as an attribute complement, 
it is often called a predicate noun. 
Exercise 

XL Analyze the following sentences. Whenever 
adjectives or nouns are used as attribute comple- 
ments, call them predicate adjectives or predicate 
nouns. 

1. John was a simple country boy. 

2. A chivalrous little fellow he was. 

3. He was a fair skater and an accurate snow-baller. 



32 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

4. The boy is the shoemaker's best friend. 

5. Jewels are expensive toys. 

6. Art thou a friend ? 

7- It was smoke and roar and powder-stench. 

8. A famous man is Robin Hood. 

9. Joe Dobson was an Enghshman. 

10. The hmbs of the soldiers feel jaded and old. 

11. Blessed are the pure in heart. 

Exercise 
III. In the last paragraph on page 250, select the 
nouns, pronouns, and adjectives. Tell the word 
which each pronoun represents, and what word each 
adjective modifies. 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 210, Sec- 
tion 13. 

Section 22. Adverbs 

I. Not all modifiers are adjectives. Most of those 
in the following sentences may be grouped in a dif- 
ferent class because of their different use. 

(a) A brave man never dies. 

(b) Books are our most steadfast friends. 

(c) The days pass very rapidly. 

In (a), what word modifies the meaning of *' dies" ? It 
adds an idea of time. A word that modifies the meaning of 
a verb is called an adverb.^ 

What word in (b) modifies the word " steadfast" ? What 
part of speech is *' steadfast" ? A word that modifies the 
meaning of an adjective is an adverb. 

What word in (c) modifies "pass".'' What is it, then.'^ 

^ See dictionary for the meaning of the word adverb. Does the 
name seem suitable? 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 33 

What word modifies the adverb that modifies " pass" ? A 
word tliat modifies an adverb is an adverb. 

An adverb is a word that modifies the meaning of a verb, 
an adjective, or an adverb. 

EXEKCISE 

II. In the following' sentences, select the adjec- 
tives and adverbs, telling what each modifies. 

1. Formerly men printed their books by hand. 

2. The ignorant foreigner finds too" much freedom 

here. 

3. A wise man will always be honest. 

4. Youth comes but once in a lifetime. 

5. The majestic river floated on. 

6. Truth never hurts the teller. 

7. The tongue is ever turning to the aching tooth. 

8. Swing low, sweet ehariot! 

g. I never was on the dull, tame shore. 
But I loved the great sea more and more. 
And backward flew to its billowy breast. 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 211, Sec- 
tion 14. 

Section 23. Phrases 

I. Study the following groups of words. 

(a) with fading music 

(b) on the rolling sea 

(c) will have been studying 

(d) to follow 

Are the words of each group related in meaning ? Does 
any one of the expressions contain a subject and a predi- 
cate ? Such a group of words is called a phrase. 

The difference between a sentence and a phrase 



34 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

is this : a sentence always has a subject and a pred- 
icate, and makes an assertion ; a phrase never has a 
subject and a predicate, and does not make an asser- 
tion. 

Exercise 

II. Frame sentences containing the phrases (a), 
(b), (c), (d). In your sentences, what does the phrase 
(a) modify ? Is it, then, used like an adjective or an 
adverb ? What does (b) modify ? Is it used like an 
adjective or an adverb ? In your sentence, is (d) 
used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb? We 
find, then, that phrases are used as nouns, or verbs, 
or adjectives, or adverbs. 

Exercise 

III. In the following expressions, tell which are 
phrases and which are sentences. 

(e) of red apples (i) they are to be eaten 

(f) apples are red (j) on the day appointed 

(g) to be eaten (k) along the homeward way 
(h) for eating (1) the children loitered along 

the homeward way 
A phrase is a group of words without subject or predi- 
cate, having the use of a single word.^ 

Section 24. Uses of Phrases 

I. You have learned that word modifiers are clas- 
sified according to their use. They may be adjec- 
tives or adverbs. Phrase modifiers are classified in 
the same way. 

(a) With fine wheaten bread was the leper fed. 

(b) With fine bread of wheat was the leper fed. 

1 For punctuation of phrases, see page 259, V, 5 and 6. 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 35 

(c) Cinderella's sisters treated her shabbily. 

(d) Cinderella's sisters treated her in a shabby manner. 

(e) The coloring on the tulips is extremely brilliant. 

(f) The coloring on the tulips is brilliant in the highest 

degree. 

What phrase in (b) has the same use as "wheaten" in 
(a) ? It is called an adjective phrase. What modifier in 
(d) means the same as one in (c) .^ What would be a good 
name for the phrase.'^ What is '* brilliant" in (e) and (f) .^ 
By what name would you call a modifier of " brilliant" ? 

A phrase used to modify a noun or a pronoun is 
an adjective phrase. 

A phrase used to modify a verb, an adjective, or 
an adverb is an adverbial phrase. 

Exercise 
II. Analyze the following sentences according to 
the model. 

Model. " Idleness is the source of much evil" is a 
declarative sentence. 

The complete subject is " Idleness." 

The complete predicate is " is the source of much evil." 

The simple subject is " Idleness"; it is unmodified. 

The simple predicate is " is source," composed of the 
copula "is" and the attribute complement " source." 
" Source" is modified by the adjective " the" and the adjec- 
tive phrase " of much evil." 

Model for Written Analysis 
Complete Subject Idleness 

Complete Predicate is the source of much evil 

Simple Subject Idleness 

Simple Predicate is source 

Copula is 



36 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

Attribute Complement source 
Modifiers of 

Attribute Complement the of much evil 

1. Men of great wealth often do much good. 

2. Lafayette came at a fortunate time. 

3. Happiness is the natural flower of duty. 

4. A treaty is the promise of a nation. 

5. A good intention clothes itself with sudden power. 

6. Youth is full of pleasure. 

7. Age is full of care. 

8. The man with a violin is a bore to the man with a 

flute. 
9- The frost has bitten the heel of the going year. 

10. Opportunities never nibble twice at the same hook. 

11. Lee was a man of fine character. 

12. Upon the grass the frost lies white. 

13. The world is still deceived by ornament. 

14. A little nonsense, now and then. 
Is relished by the wisest men. 

15- The wild November comes at last 

Beneath a veil of rain. 
16. Upon a pasture stone, 

iVgainst the fading west, 

A small bird sings alone. 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 211, Sec- 
tion 15. 

Section 25. Phrases in the Predicate 

I. Sometimes a phrase in the predicate is an attri- 
bute complement ; sometimes it is an adverbial mod- 
ifier. To tell in which way it is used, one needs to 
think carefully of the meaning of the sentence. 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 37 

(a) The nest is high. 

(b) The nest is in the tree. ^ 
(e) The birds are phi\ in<r in the tree. 

(d) The teaeher is present. 

(e) She is in the room. 

(f) We march in the room. 

(g) The President is friendly to all. 

(h) The President is of a friendly spirit. 

(i) Beethoven's early home was in Germany. 

(j) He moved to Austria. 

In (a), what is the attribute complement? This word 
names an attribute of place, or position. In (b), what 
phrase shows the position of the nest 'i The phrase names 
just as truly, then, an attribute of position. So the phrase 
is the attribute complement of the sentence. 

The same phrase has a different use in (c). If the phrase 
were omitted in (b), would any assertion be made about 
the nest .^ What necessary element would be omitted ? If 
the phrase were omitted in (c), would an assertion be 
made .^ What phrase tells where they w^ere playing "t Since 
it modifies a verb, it is an adverbial phrase. 

What is the attribute complement in (d) .^ What phrase 
has the same use in (e) ? Show that the same words form 
an adverbial phrase in (f). 

Is the phrase in (h) adjective, adverbial, or attribute 
complement.^ in (i) ? in (j) .^ 

This rule may generally be followed : When the 
verb is some form of is, was, be, or been, a phrase 
in the predicate is an attribute complement ; with 
other verbs a phrase is a modifier. 

Exercise 
II. Write five sentences containing verbs com- 



38 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

pleted by phrases. Write five sentences containing 
verbs modified by phrases. 

Exercise 
III. Analyze the following sentences according to 
the models already used. 

1. Washington is the capital of the United States. 

2. Washington is in the District of Columbia. 

3. Washington is situated on the Potomac. 

4. Cotton is grown in the South. 

5. Many manufactories are in the South. 

6. Much of our fruit comes from CaHfornia. 

7. Pasadena is in the fruit district of CaHfornia. 

8. Our biggest timber comes from Washington and 

Oregon. 

9. Violets and dandehons are in bloom. 

10. To-day is here. 

11. To-morrow will never be here. 

12. Here is darkness. 

13. Beyond the mountain is light. 
14- Here darkness overtook us. 

15. In the morning we shall come into the light. 

16. The criticism was given for our good. 

17. Criticism is for our good. 

18. Truth is within ourselves. 

19. The year is at the spring. 

20. Day is at the morn. 

21. The lark is on the wing. 

22. God is in His world. 

23. The drowning man grasps at a straw. 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 212, Sec- 
tion 16. 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 39 

Section 26. Prepositions 

I. (a) The dust was dimpled by the rain. 

(b) The flowers were refreshed by it. 

(c) The bloom was on the clover. 

(d) The blue was in the sky. 

(e) My naked feet found dewy pathways through the 

wheat. 

Write in a column the phrases used in these sentences. 
Underline the nouns and pronouns in these phrases. Does 
each phrase have either a noun or a pronoun for its princi- 
pal word ? After each phrase write the little word with 
which it begins. Each of these little words shows the rela- 
tion of the noun or pronoun to the word which the phrase 
modifies. This is clearly seen by changing these little 
words in a sentence. Read the following sentence in the 
different ways indicated, and observe the differences in 
meaning: — 

'to 



The knight sprang 



from 
] upon 
I before 



> his horse. 



These words that show relation are called preposi- 
tions. 

A preposition is a word that shows the relation between 
the principal word of the phrase and the word the phrase 
modifies. 

Sometimes two or more words are combined to 
show relation. As, from under the ruins ; in accord- 
ance with the facts ; as to the story ; because of the 
cold. 

The principal word of a prepositional phrase is 
often called the object of the preposition. 



40 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

Exercise 
II. Analyze the following sentences according to 
the model. 

Model. " A lion among ladies is a most dreadful thing" 
is a declarative sentence. 

The complete subject is "A lion among ladies." 
The complete predicate is " is a most dreadful thing." 
The simple subject is " lion," modified by the adjective 
"A" and the adjective phrase "among ladies." 

The simple predicate is " is thing," composed of the 
copula "is" and the attribute complement "thing." 
"Thing" is modified by the adjectives "a" and "dread- 
ful." "Dreadful" is modified by the adverb "most." 

Model for Written Analysis 

Complete Subject A lion among ladies 

Complete Predicate is a most dreadful thing 

Simple Subject lion 

Modifiers of Subject A among ladies 

Simple Predicate is thing 

Copula is 

Attribute Complement thing 
Modifiers of 

Attribute Complement a dreadful 

Modifier of Modifier most 

1. Victory is born of endurance. 

2. Excess of wealth is a cause of covetousness. 

3. All roads lead to Rome. 

4. Life without industry is guilt. 

5. I'll speak in a monstrous little voice. 

6. Truth is truth 
To the end of reckoning. 

7. Light gains make heavy purses. 

8. This hitteth the nail on the head. 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 41 

9. The finest edge is made with a blunt whetstone. 

10. The world knows nothing of its greatest men. 

11. One on God's side is a majority. 

12. Over my head his arms he flung, 

Against the world. 

13. To every man upon this earth 
Death cometh soon or late. 

14. A nod from a lord is a breakfast for a fool. 

15. We are all children in the Kindergarten of God. 

16. The poplar drops beside the way 
Its tasseled plumes of silver-gray. 

17- The bumblebee tipped the lily- vases along the 
roadside. 

18. The honeysuckle spills its perfume on the breeze. 

19. Between the pasture bars the wondering cattle stared 

wistfully. 

20. The ripples of the river lipped the moss along the 

brink. 

21. Out of the shadows of night 
The world rolls into light. 

22. By their fruits ye shall know them. 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 214, Sec- 
tion 17. 

Section 27. Uses of Phrases 

I. (a) The holy spirit of the spring 
Is working silently. 

(b) The southern slopes are fringed with tender 

green. 

(c) Spring hangs her infant blossoms on the trees.. 

(d) The bird is on her nest. 

(e) From her we may learn patience. 

(f) From her we may learn to be patient. 

(g) To be patient is to be strong. 



42 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

(h) Loitering makes a person tardy. 

(i) Loitering makes a person behind time. 

Point out the adjective phrase in (a) ; the adverbial 
phrases in (b) and (c) ; the phrase used as an attribute 
complement in (d). 

In (e), what is the object complement of '* learn " ? What 
phrase in (f ) has exactly the same use ? A phrase, then, 
may be used as an object complement. 

What is the subject of (g) ? This shows another use of 
the phrase. 

Show that the word " tardy" is the objective complement 
in (h). What phrase has exactly the same use in (i) ? So 
a phrase may be used as an objective complement. 

A phrase is often used as : — 

1. an adjective modifier; 

2. an adverbial modifier ; 

3. an attribute complement ; 
and rarely as : — 

4. a subject; 

5. an object complement ; 

6. an objective complement. 

Exercise 
II. In the following sentences, tell how each 
phrase is used. You will need to be very careful in 
the analysis. 

1. Over the fence is out. 

2. He is trying hard to understand grammar. 

3. My book fell under the table. 

4. My book is on the table, 

5. He began the study of Greek. 

6. He began to study Greek. 

7. Too little exercise kept him in bad condition. 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 43 

8. A fool at forty is a fool indeed. 

9. He learned to keep a few true men for his friends. 
10. Waters on a starry night are beautiful and fair. 

Section 28. Review 

What are the five elements that may be found in 
sentences? Which of these must be found in every 
sentence? In how many ways can you form a pred- 
icate? Give examples. What is a complete subject? 
a complete predicate ? What is a modifier ? What 
two classes of words are used as modifiers? What is 
an adjective? an adverb? What besides single words 
may be used as modifiers ? What new part of speech 
was found in the phrases? Define it. Is a phrase ever 
used except as a modifier? For what purpose ? When 
a phrase is found in the predicate, how can you tell 
whether it is a modifier or an attribute complement ? 

Section 29. The Indirect Object 

I. There are many ways of expressing a thought. 
In this lesson, the same thought is expressed in each 
pair of sentences; but the form of the expression 
varies. Find just what is the difference in form. 

(a) Lincoln gave the slaves their liberty. 

(b) Lincoln gave liberty to the slaves. 

(c) Nokomis taught the little Hiawatha many things. 

(d) Nokomis taught many things to the little Hiawatha. 

(e) The snow makes a beautiful white blanket for the 

plants. 

(f ) The snow makes the plants a beautiful white blanket. 

In (a) and (b), what word names what was given ? This 
word is the direct object. In both sentences, what word 



44 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

tells to whom liberty was given ? In (e) and (f), what is the 
object of the transitive verb "makes" ? For what was the 
" blanket" made ? A noun or pronoun that tells to whom 
or for whom an action is done is called an indirect object. 
This name is given because the noun or pronoun is affected 
by the verb only indirectly through the direct object. 

When the indirect object is joined to the verb by 
a preposition, the indirect object and the preposition 
form an adverbial phrase. When there is no connec- 
tive, the indirect object is still an adverbial modifier. 

If the indirect object follows the direct object, the 
preposition is usually expressed ; if it precedes the 
direct object, the preposition is usually omitted. 

The most common verbs that may be followed by 
an indirect object are : bring, build, cut, do, forgive, 
get, give, grant, hand, leave, make, offer, pay, pledge, 
promise, read, sell, send, show, teach, tell, throw, wish. 

An indirect object is a word used to name the object ^ to 
or for which something is done. 

Indirect objects, then, include both persons and 

things. 

Exercise 

II. Write ten sentences with indirect objects, 
using ten of the verbs named near the close of Ex- 
ercise I of this section. 

Exercise 

III. Analyze the following sentences. There is no 
need of a new model. 

An indirect object is a modifier of a verb, just 
the same as any other adverbial modifier. 

^ See footnote on page 6. 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 45 

1. Jefi'erson offered Gallatin a position in his cabinet. 

2. The Indians sold the white people acres of land. 

3. Charles II granted his "trusty and well-beloved 

cousins" a vast extent of territory in the New 
World. 

4. The clock upbraids me with the waste of time. 

5. Experience has taught us many serious lessons. 

6. Marquette told the listening crowds the story of 

salvation, 

7. The way to his land of promise was rough and long. 

8. A decent provision for the poor is the true test of 

civilization. 

9. To relieve distress is godlike. 

10. Now only here and there a little star 

Looks forth alone. 

11. Winter giveth the fields and trees of old 
Their beards and icicles of snow. 

12. Grant us wisdom and strength. 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 215, Sec- 



tion 18. 



Section 30. Nouns Used Adverbially 

(a) The coat cost much. 

(b) The coat cost three dollars. 

(c) The war lasted long. 

(d) The war lasted four years. 

(e) Some mountains are very high. 

(f) Some mountains are four miles high. 

(g) A kind word is worth much. 
(h) The reward is worth the effort. 
(i) Cornwallis surrendered then. 

(j) Cornwallis surrendered October nineteenth. 



46 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

(k) The snow was gone long ago. 
(1) The snow was gone days ago. 
(m) The Httle birds fly east and the Httle birds fly west. 

What adverb in (a) modifies the verb '*cost" ? It gives 
a measure of value. In (b), the same verb is modified by 
words denoting a definite measure of value. Since this 
expression modifies the meaning of the verb, it is an 
adverbial modifier. In (c), what adverb modifies the verb 
"lasted" ? It is a measure of time. In (d), the measure of 
time is named. Then the expressions "three dollars" and 
"four years" are both adverbial modifiers, though both 
" dollars " and " years " are nouns. In exactly the same way, 
you will find nouns used as adverbial modifiers in (f), (h), 
(j), (1), and (m). 

Name the nouns in (b), (d), (f), (h), (j), (1), and (m) 
used as adverbial modifiers. Which are used to modify the 
meaning of verbs ? of adjectives ? of adverbs ? All but 
two express some kind of measure. 

The commonest adverbial uses of a noun are to 
designate measure, point of time, and direction. 

Adverbs may modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs. 
Nouns used adverbially may do the same. 

Exercise 
II. Analyze the sentences according to the model. 

Model. "One warm morn, Winter crept, aged, from 
the earth" is a declarative sentence. 

Complete Subject Winter, aged 

Complete Predicate crept One warm morn from the earth 

Simple Subject Winter 

Modifier of Subject aged 

Simple Predicate crept 

Modifiers of Verb One warm morn from the earth 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 47 

1. A pint of water weighs a pound. 

2. My father is out of the city. 
3- My father is away. 

4. The moon is far away. 

5. The sun is 92,000,000 miles away. 

6. A hundred years make a century. 

7. Years ago the Mississippi Valley was the abode of 

Indians. 

8. They marched half a league onward. 

Q. Morning, noon, and night, her tongue was forever 
going.^ 

10. Your privileges have cost labor and sacrifice. 

11. The view from the mountain-top is worth the weary 

climb. 

12. The situation was not without its embarrassments. 

My rod weighed four and a half ounces. The fish 
weighed five or six pounds. The current was furi- 
ous and headstrong. I had only thirty yards of 
line and no landing-net. 

13. One to-day is worth two to-morrows. 

14. No morning sun lasts a whole day. 

Section 31. Nouns Used Adjectively: Apposltives 
and Possessives 

I. You have studied the uses of nouns as subject, 
attribute complement, object complement, objective 
complement, and adverbial modifiers. Give exam- 
ples of each in sentences. Two other uses of nouns 
are shown in the following exercises. 

(a) Nero, a Roman emperor, murdered Christians for his 

pleasure. 

(b) I, John, saw these things. 

(c) William Henry Harrison defeated Tecumseh, a 

Shawnee chief. 



48 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

What word in (a) modifies "Nero" by telling who he 
was ? It is an adjective modifier. Why ? What word in (b) 
modifies the pronoun "I" by identifying, or naming? It 
is also an adjective modifier. Why ? W^hat noun in (c) tells 
in what class to place " Tecumseh" ? In all three sentences 
you have pointed out nouns used as adjective modifiers. 
There is no word to connect these nouns with the words 
they modify. A noun, then, may modify another noun 
directly, both of them naming the same object. A noun 
having this adjective use is called an appositive. 

An appositive is a noun used to modify the meaning of a 
noun or pronoun by naming the same object.^ 

II. (a) The chief's eye flashed. 

(b) A man's reach should exceed his grasp. 

(c) A serpent's bite is poisonous. 

(d) One winter's evening a man was urging a tired 

horse along a lonely road. 

What noun in (a) names the possessor or owner of 
"eye".^ What noun in (b) modifies the meaning of the 
noun " reach," denoting possession ? In the same sentence, 
a pronoun is used to denote possession. What noun does 
this pronoun limit in meaning ? These words denoting pos- 
session are possessive modifiers, or possessives. 

Not all nouns with the sign of the possessive, the apos- 
trophe, denote possession. In (c), the serpent cannot be 
said to own or possess the bite. "Serpent's" is a modifier 
denoting the agent of an action. In (d), "winter's" does 
not denote possession; it is descriptive. Yet because most 
words with the sign of the possessive actually do denote 
possession, we term them all possessives. 

A noun used as an appositive or a possessive may 
be modified by adjectives, the same as other nouns. 
Give examples. 

^ For punctuation of appositives, see page 259, V, 3. 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 49 

Exercise: 

III. Write five sentences each containing an ap- 
positive. In three of the sentences, use adjectives to 
modify the meaning of the appositives. 

Write five sentences each containing a possessive 
modifier; and in three of these sentences use ad- 
jectives to modify the meaning of the possessives. 
Exercise 

IV. Analyze the sentences according to the model. 

Model. " William Henry Harrison defeated Tecumseh, 
a Shawnee chief," is a declarative sentence. 

The complete subject is "William Henry Harrison." 

The complete predicate is " defeated Tecumseh, a 
Shawnee chief." 

The simple subject is " William Henry Harrison," 
unmodified. 

The simple predicate is "defeated Tecumseh," com- 
posed of the verb " defeated " and the object complement 
"Tecumseh." "Tecumseh" is modified by the appositive 
"chief." "Chief" is modified by the adjectives "a" and 
" Shawnee." 

1. Hildebrand, the son of a poor carpenter, became 

pope in the eleventh century. 

2. Amerigo Vespucci, an Italian sailor, made the first 

chart of the coast of America. 

3. The Gauls were subdued by Caesar, dictator of 

Rome. 
4- No man knows his own voice. 

5. Out of this nettle, danger, we pluck the flower, 

safety. 

6. The army moved forward after a month's delay. 

7. Gladness on wings, the bobolink, is here. 

8. My oriole, my glance of summer fire, is come at last. 



50 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

9. Stanch friends are we, 
One little sandpiper and I. 

10. He wandered away and away 
With Nature, the dear old Nurse. 

11. Noontide wakes the buttercups. 
The little children's dower. 

12. Still sits the school -house by the road, 
A ragged beggar sunning, 

13. Silently, one by one, in the infinite meadows of 

heaven, 
Blossomed the lovely stars, the forget-me-nots of the 
angels. 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 216, Sec- 
tion 19. 

Section 32. Different Uses of Same Word 

In the following sentences, the same word occurs 
a number of times; but its use in several sentences 
is not the same. Study the meaning of each sen- 
tence, and be sure to give the words their proper 
place in the analysis. Analyze the sentences accord- 
ing to models already given. Classify the words as 
nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, and 
prepositions. Always give the reason for your classi- 
fication. 

1. The dog ran fast. 

2. The fast horses were tied fast to the fence. 

3. The Jews observed the fast. 

4. Many persons fast during Lent. 

5. He came in. 

6. We sat in the reading-room of the inn. 

7. He looked at himself in the mirror. 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 51 

8. He had the look of a gentleman. 

Q. I fell down. I stayed down. 

10. I rolled down the hill. 

11. The robin picked down from her breast. 

12. A down pillow is soft. 

13. The only real possession of man is his character. 

14. I whispered only once. 

15. I only whispered once. 

16. Only he went. 

17. The door is wide open. 

18. The door is open wide. 

19. The door stood wide open. 

20. The open door is the American policy in China. 

21. They open the gate. 

22. I hear the low murmur of the breeze. 

23. I feel the breeze. 

24. I feel cool. 

25. The breeze is murmuring soft and low. 

26. The house is painted red. 

27. They painted the house red. 

28. The poker is red-hot. 

29. The hot poker is red. 

30. Red is my favorite color. 

Section 33. Order of Words in a Sentence 

I. Which usually comes first in a sentence — the 
subject or the predicate? Prove your answer by 
several sentences. Do complements usually follow 
or precede the verbs ? Give examples. Do the word- 
modifiers of a noun generally precede or follow the 
word modified? Is this true of the phrase-modifi- 
ers? Find examples to show that your answers are 
correct. 

Show in what respect each of the following sen- 



52 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

tences varies from the usual order. Rewrite each 
sentence, changing the order to the usual form. 
Observe the difference in the impression left in your 
mind. 

(a) In union is strength. 

(b) Ideals we do not make. We discover them. 

(c) Slowly and quietly the great gray clouds creep up 

over the night sky. 

(d) Silent and soft and slow 
Descends the snow. 

(e) All around the happy village 

Stood the maize-fields green and shining. 

Is it not true in each case that the words placed 
first attract attention and so are emphatic ? 

If all sentences should be arranged in the same 
order, composition would become monotonous. To 
introduce variety into composition, and to render a 
special word emphatic, writers change from the 
usual order. A verb, adjective, adverb, complement, 
or modifier placed first in a sentence receives special 
emphasis. Any part of a sentence may be placed out 
of its natural order to give the composition variety, 
and especially to give emphasis to the transposed 
part. 

Exercise 

II. Analyze the five sentences in Exercise I of this 
section, and the sentences below. There is no new 
element in them. Be very careful to know what each 
sentence means before you begin the analysis. 

1. From the dull ground, the violet gathers up her 

tender blue. 

2. A prisoner Robert remained for twenty-eight years. 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 53 

3. A mighty man is he. 

With large and sinewy hands. 

4. A rare old plant is the ivy green. 

5. With his hard, rough hand, 

He wipes a tear out of his eyes. 

6. A primrose by the river's brim 
A yellow primrose was to him. 

7- Three years she grew in sun and shower. 

8. Sweet is the breath of morn. 

9. In a small chamber, friendless and unseen, 
Toiled o'er his types one poor unlearned young man. 

10. Him have I offended. 

11. Shorter and shorter now the twilight clips the days. 

12. Old homesteads I love, in their clusters of trees. 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 216, Sec- 
tion 20. 

Section 34. Use of '» There" and '*It" 

I. The following sentences show a common way 
of varying the usual order of words in a sentence. 

(a) A window-box of beautiful geraniums is here by me. 

(b) There is a bank of beautiful geraniums here by me. 

(c) No day is without its innocent hope. 

(d) There is no day without its innocent hope. 

(e) Something forever comes between us and happiness. 

(f) There comes forever something between us and 

happiness. 

(g) Men of honor and courage are still in the world. 
(h) There are still men of honor and courage in the 

world. 

What word is used to introduce the sentence in (b), (d), 
(f), and (h), when the usual order is changed.^ Though 



54 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

this word is sometimes used as an adverb of place, thought- 
ful study of the meaning will show that it is not so used 
in the sentences given. For example, in sentence (b), 
"here" certainly denotes an attribute of place; and both 
"here" and "there" could not be used in the same sen- 
tence to denote the same place* In this, as in the other 
sentences given above, "there" is simply an introductory 
word. 

What three elements are necessary in every sentence ? 
What is the subject of (h) ? What does " are" mean in (h) ? 
Is this verb a copula or a complete verb ? Whenever " is" 
means "exists," it is a complete verb. 

Show that the two sentences in each pair have the same 
subjects and the same predicates. Tell just what changes 
have been made in the natural order when the introduc- 
tory word "there" is used. Give other examples. 

II. Another form of expression is shown in the 
sentences below. 

(a) To catch a thief needs a thief. 

(b) It needs a thief to catch a thief. 

(c) That every man's work is born into this world with 

him is true. 

(d) It is true that every man's work is born into this 

world with him. 

What is the complete subject of (a) ? (c) ? 

When the real subject of a sentence is a group of words 
denoting a single idea, it seldom stands at the beginning 
of a sentence. The predicate often comes before the real 
subject, with the pronoun "it" used as another subject in 
apposition with the real subject. For example, in (b), 
"It" and the phrase, "to catch a thief," mean the same; 
they name or represent the same object; they are in 
apposition. 

"It" in such sentences is called an introductory subject. 



THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS 55 

The group of words which "it" stands for is the real sub- 
ject. What is the real subject of (b) ? (d) ? 

Exercise 
III. Analyze the following sentences. Do not 
try to separate the real subject into its parts. The 
predicate of each sentence is easy to analyze. 

Model. "It is honorable to work with the hands" is a 

declarative sentence. 

The complete subject is " It" " to work with the hands." 

The complete predicate is " is honorable." 

** It" is the introductory subject, in apposition with the 

real subject, "to work with the hands." 

1. It is a grand thing to make something beautiful. 

2. There is no food for the soul but truth. 

3. It was morning on hill and stream and tree. 

4. There's a star in the sky. 

5. It is a great thing to be beloved by one's country. 

6. There is no doubt on that score. 

7. It takes a long time to bring excellence to maturity. 

Section 35. Review 

What is an indirect object ? How is it different 
from a direct object? What kind of modifier is it ? 
Does it have a preposition before it? Do nouns have 
any other adverbial use? For what purposes are 
nouns used adverbially ? What are the two adjective 
uses of nouns ? Define an appositive. Define a pos- 
sessive. In what ways and for what reasons is the 
usual order of sentences sometimes changed? 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 218, Sec- 
tion 21. 



CHAPTER II 

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES 

Section 36. Classes of Sentences 

I. Sentences have been classified, according to 
their use, as declarative, interrogative, imperative, and 
exclamatory. (See page 2.) The subject of a declar- 
ative sentence is usually at or near the beginning 
of a sentence ; but the first word of an interrogative 
sentence is not always the subject. Study these sen- 
tences : — 

(a) When shall I be free ? 

(b) To-day I shall be free. 

(c) Who does not love power? 

(d) John does not love power. 

(e) What have they named him ? 

(f) James have they named him. 

(g) Who is he .^ 
(h) The king is he. 

In (b) "To-day" is an adverb, modifying "shall be." 
"When" in (a) has exactly the same construction. So 
"Who" in (c) and " John" in (d) have the same construc- 
tion. What is it.'^ Arrange the answer to (e) in its natural 
order. What is the construction of " James" .^ of " What," 
then ."^ Arranged in its natural order, the answer to (g) 
reads "He is the king." What is the construction of 
" He" ? of "king" ? " Who" has the same construction as 
"king." 



CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES 57 

Exercise 
II. Analyze the following sentences. Before ana- 
lyzing-, always think the sentence rearranged in the 
usual declarative order. 

Model. "What find I here?" is an interrogative 
sentence. 

The complete subject is "I." 

The complete predicate is "find What here." 

The simple subject is "I" unmodified. 

The simple predicate is "find What," composed of the 
verb "find" and the object "What." 

The verb is modified by the adverb " here." 

1. When did Cornwallis surrender? 

2. Who is the greatest Hving poet? 

3. How much have you paid for your whistle? 

4. Where is Paris ? 

5. Who hath not lost a friend ? 

6. Whither wilt thou flee from thyself? 

7. Did the waves obey King Canute ? 

8. Where is the most rugged American scenery? 

9. What shall I render to m}^ God 
For all his gifts to mc? 

10. W^here shall wisdom be found ? 

11. Where is the place of understanding? 

12. Whence, then, cometh wisdom? 

13. Who has read "The Vision of Sir Launfal"? 
14- What is the largest city in the world? 

15. What study do you like best? 

Section 37. Independent Words 

I. (a) Man, know thyself. 

(b) Oh, pilot, 't is a fearful night! 

(c) Oh, never chide the wing of time! 



58 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

Which of the four classes of sentences is (a) ? (b) ? (c) ? 
Is the subject of an imperative sentence expressed ? Is 
*' Man" in (a) the subject? Does the sentence say, "Man 
knows"? What is the subject of (b) ? Of what use is 
"pilot"? Are the words "Man," "pilot," "Oh," parts of 
the subjects or of the predicates ? 

A sentence may contain words that grammat- 
ically have no connection with it ; yet these words 
add to the meaning of the sentence. These words 
are said to be independent. 

The name of the person addressed is used inde- 
pendently ; as ^'Man" in (a).^ 

Independent words that are used to express strong 
feeling are called interjections. Oh, alas, ah, pshaw, 
are common examples. 

An interjection is a word used to express strong feeling. 
Exercise 

II. Analyze the following sentences. 

Model. "Oh, pilot, 'tis a fearful night!" is an ex- 
clamatory sentence. "It ('t)" is the complete subject; 
" is a fearful night" is the complete predicate. " It ('t) " is 
the simple subject, unmodified. 

"Is night" is the simple predicate, composed of the 
copula "is" and the attribute complement "night." 

"Night" is modified by the adjectives "a" and "fear- 
ful." 

"Oh" and "pilot" are used independently in the 
sentence. 

1. Woodman, spare that tree! 

2. Charge for the guns! 

3. Lead, kindly Light! 

^ For punctuation, see page 259, V, 2. 



CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES 59 

4. Daughter of Egypt, veil thine eyes! 
5- Sleep, sleep, sleep. 

In thy folded waves, O sea! 

6. There's a song in the air! 
There's a star in the sky! 

7. My golden spurs now bring to me. 

8. Rock me to sleep, mother, — rock me to sleep ! 

9. Weep no more, my lady! 
Weep no more to-day! 

10. Adieu! adieu! my native shore 
Fades o'er the waters blue. 

11. Oh, velvet Bee, you're a dusty fellow! 

12. Wind, you sing so loud a song! 

13. By cool Siloam's shady rill 
How fair the lily grows! 

14. Hurrah! the seaward breezes 
Sweep down the bay amain! 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 218, Sec- 
tion 22. 

Section 38. Simple and Compound Sentences 

I. (a) Man is guided by reason. 

(b) Beasts are guided by instinct. 

(c) Man is guided by reason, and beasts are guided 

by instinct. 

(d) Man is guided by reason, and beasts by instinct. 

Is (a) a sentence .^ Is (b) ? These two sentences are 
united in (c) and make a sentence with two parts. Give 
these two parts. Does each part contain a subject and a 
predicate .-* 

A part of a sentence containing a subject and a 
predicate is called a clause. 



60 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

When two sentences are joined as these are, the 
clauses are independent of each other and the sen- 
tence is said to be a compound sentence. 

In sentence (d), what words have been omitted ? Is the 
meaning clear without them? Can you analyze the sen- 
tence without the omitted words ? Whenever any of the 
necessary elements of a sentence are omitted, they must be 
supplied in analysis. 

A sentence that contains but one statement is a 
simple sentence. 

A sentence that contains two or more independent 
statements is a compound sentence. 

A part of a sentence containing a subject and a 
predicate is a clause. 

The word that joins the independent statements 
of a compound sentence is a conjunction. 

Exercise 
II. Analyze the following sentences. 

Model. "Man is guided by reason, and beasts by 
instinct" is a compound, declarative sentence; compound, 
because . . . , and declarative, because . . . 

The first independent statement is "man is guided by 
reason," and the second is "beasts (are guided) by in- 
stinct." 

Go on with the analysis exactly as if the statements were 
simple sentences. 

The independent statements are connected by the con- 
junction "and." 

1. Virtue is bold, and goodness is never fearful. 

2. Wealthy planters settled in Virginia, but the settlers 

in Massachusetts were generally poor. 



CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES 61 

3. ^Minnesota produces the most iron, and Pennsylvania 

the most coal. 

4. A false balance is an abomination to the Lord : but 

a just weight is his delight. 

5. Hatred stirreth up strifes; but love covereth all 

transgressions. 

6. A cruel story runs on wheels, and ever}^ hand oils the 

wheels. 

7. By slothfulness the roof sinketh in ; 

And through idleness of the hands the house leaketh. 

8. The soft drops of rain pierce the hard marble; 
Many strokes overthrow the tallest oaks. 

9. The morn was fair, the skies were clear. 
No breath came o'er the sea. 

10. My country is the world; my countrymen are all 
mankind. 

Section 39. Compound Elements of a Sentence 

I. (a) A crow and a blue jay belong to the same family 
of birds. 

(b) Wolfe defeated the French and Indians under 

Montcalm. 

(c) Pope Leo XIII was wise and kind. 

(d) The angels come and go, the messengers of God. 
(e'^ Neither ancestry nor riches make a man es- 
teemed or loved. 

What is the sul)ject of (a)? Does it name one idea? 
What is the object in (b) .^ the attribute complement in (c) ? 
the simple predicate in (d) ? the subject in (e) ? the objec- 
tive complement in (e) ? 

Any of the elements of a sentence, — subject, 
copula, attribute, object, objective complement, — 
or any modifier, may be compound. 



62 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

The word that connects the parts of any com- 
pound element' is a conjunction. 

When more than two words are joined to make a 
compound element of a sentence, the conjunction is 
usually omitted except before the last one. 
Exercise 

II. Analyze the following sentences. 

Model. "The angels come and go, the messengers of 
God" is a simple, declarative sentence. There is nothing 
new in this analysis except to state that "come and go" is 
a compound predicate. 

1 . Tar, turpentine, and resin are mainly supplied by the 

pine forests of the South. 

2. Raw silk is reeled and sent to the market in skeins. 
3- The United States buys from Australia wool, gums, 

hides, and copper, and sells to Australia petro- 
leum, railway cars, tobacco, hardware, and leather 
goods. 

4. Railroads are numerous and rates are cheap in 

Germany. 

5. All European and many American manufacturers 

buy large quantities of raw silk in Italy. 

6. Venezuela exports quantities of rubber and coffee. 

7. Belgium makes all its own sugar, and exports much. 

8. The Dutch are a cattle-raising and trading nation. 
Q. The northeast portion of France produces coal and 

iron. 
10. The Saskatchewan and the Mackenzie afford 4000 
miles of navigable waterways in the far interior of 
Canada. 

Composition 
For the lesson in Composition, see page 219, Sec- 
tion 23. 



CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES 63 

Section 40. Adjective Clauses 

I. (a) Brave Joan, on a white horse, defeated the EngHsh. 

(b) Brave Joan, who rode a white horse, defeated the 

English. 

(c) She who rode the white horse was Joan of Arc. 

(d) The white horse which she rode was a mark for 

English arrows. 

(e) The white horse that she rode was a mark for 

English arrows. 

(f) Joan, in whom the army trusted, led the French 

to victory at Orleans. 

(g) Joan, whose horse was a mark for English arrows, 

was wounded. 
(h) The horse on which she rode was white. 
(i) The horse which she rode on was white. 
(j) The horse that she rode on was white. 
(k) They killed the horse which Joan rode. 
(1) Joan was a brave leader who inspired courage. 
(m) The English soldiers railed at Joan, who an- 
swered them with silence. 

What are the modifiers of " Joan " in (a) ? Since they 
modify a noun, what kind of modifiers are they t What 
besides "brave" modifies "Joan" in (b) ? Since it modi- 
fies a noun, it is what kind of modifier.^ Has this modifier 
a subject and a predicate ? What are they ? 

It has been shown in previous lessons that a noun 
may be modified by a word or a phrase. We see 
that a noun may also be modified by a clause. 

In (c), what does the clause, " who rode the white horse," 
modify } In what sentences do the clauses modify the sub- 
ject ? Is there a sentence in which the clause is a modifier 
of the attribute complement ? in which the clause modifies 



64 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

an object complement ? the principal word of a preposi- 
tional phrase ? 

If the word to which a pronoun refers be substituted for 
the pronoun, the use of the pronoun will always be clear. 
Doing this in (d), you will make the clause read, " a white 
horse Joan rode." "A white horse" is the object comple- 
ment; so "which," which represents "a white horse," is 
also the object complement. What is the use' of "whom" 
in (f) ? of "whose" in (g) ? of "which" in (h) ? of "who" 
in (1) ? 

In a prepositional phrase, does the preposition usually 
precede the principal word of the phrase ? Which is first in 
(f) ? in (h) ? Which stands first in (i) ? in (j) ? Can you 
think of a sentence in which a noun used as the principal 
word of a phrase stands before the preposition ? 

Exercise 
II. Find sentences in which clauses modify nouns 
that are subjects, attribute complements, object com- 
plements. Make up a sentence in which a clause is a 
modifier of a pronoun. 

Section 41. Conjunctive Pronouns 

I. In sentence (b), Section 40, what object is represented 
by " who " ? A word that represents an object, but does not 
name it, is what ? " Who " also joins the clause, " who rode 
a white horse," to the word it modifies, and so has the use 
of a conjunction. Find in Section 40 other words that 
combine the uses of a pronoun and a conjunction. 

A word that has the uses of a pronoun and a con- 
junction is called a conjunctive pronoun. 

A conjunctive pronoun is a pronoun that joins a depend- 
ent clause to the word it modifies. 

In sentence (b), Section 40, what word does "who" refer 



CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES .65 

to? Because it refers, or relates, to "Joan/' it is called a 
relative pronoun. And the word the pronoun refers to is 
called its antecedent. 

A relative pronoun is a pronoun that joins a de- 
pendent clause to the word it modifies. 

A relative pronoun and a conjunctive pronoun are 

the same. 

Exercise 

II. Analyze the sentences according to the model. 

Model. "To-day is the day that yesterday built" is a 
declarative sentence. 

The complete subject is " To-day" ; the complete predi- 
cate is " is the day that yesterday built." "To-day" is the 
simple subject, unmodified. "Is day" is the simple predi- 
cate, composed of the copula "is" and the attribute com- 
plement "day." The copula is unmodified; and the at- 
tribute complement is modified by the adjective " the" and 
the adjective clause " that yesterday built." Of this clause, 
" yesterday" is the unmodified subject. " Built" is the verb 
and "that" is the object complement. "That" connects 
the clause to the word " day." 

Model for Written Analysis 

Complete Subject To-day 

Complete Predicate is the day that yesterday built 

Simple Subject To-day 

Simple Predicate is day 

Copula is 

Attribute Complement day 

Modifiers of 

Attribute Complement the that yesterday built 

Subject of Clause yesterday 

Simple Predicate built that 

Verb built 

Object Complement that 



66 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

1. Friendship is a plant that loves the sun. 

2. He that compHes against his will 
Is of the same opinion still. 

3. The flower that smiles to-day 
To-morrow dies. 

4 All that glitters is not gold. 

5. To-morrow is a lamp upon the marsh, which a 

traveler never reacheth. 

6. They love dress too much who give it their first 

thought, their best time, or much money. 

7. They always talk who never think. 

8. The tear down childhood's cheek that flows 
Is like the dewdrop on the rose. 

9. The snow had begun in the gloaming, 

And busily all the night 
Had been heaping field and highway 
With a silence deep and white. 

Every pine and fir and hemlock 

Wore ermine too dear for an earl. 
And the poorest twig on the elm-tree 

Was ridged inch-deep with pearl. 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 220, Sec- 
tion 24. 

Section 42. Omission of Conjunctive Pronouns 

I. (a) I knew the sweet strain that the corn-reapers 
sang, 
(b) The song which he listened to was a song of his 
childhood. 

In (a), what is the use of the conjunctive pronoun ? Read 
the sentence omitting " that." Is the meaning clear .^ What 
is the use of "which" in (b) ? Can it be omitted.^ 



CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES 67 

The omission of a conjVmctive pronoun is very 
common when it is used as an object complement, 
or as the principal word of a prepositional phrase. 
An omission rarely occurs when the conjunctive 
pronoun is subject or attribute complement. Omitted 
words must be supplied in analysis. 

Exercise 

II. Analyze the following sentences. Whenever 
there is an omission, supply the missing word in the 
analysis. 

1. I saw the man that you spoke to. 

2. I saw the man you spoke to. 

3. Where are the toys we loved in childhood ? 

4. The prize we sought is won. 

5. Stone walls do not a prison make, 
Nor iron bars a cage. 

6. The best thing I know between France and England 

is the sea. 

7. Lord Stafford mines for coal and salt, 

The Duke of Norfolk deals in malt. 
The Douglas in red herrings. 

8. There's a blush on the apple, 

A tint on the wing, 
And the bright wind whistles, 
And the pulses sting. 

9. Come, stack arms; pile on the rails; 
Stir up the camp-fire bright. 

10. My golden spurs now bring to me, 
And bring to me my richest mail. 

Exercise 

III. Construct or find sentences, — three of which 
shall contain a conjunctive pronoun used as subject, 



68 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

three a conjunctive pronoun used as object comple- 
ment, two a conjunctive pronoun used as the prin- 
cipal word of a prepositional phrase, and two in 
which the conjunctive pronoun is omitted. 
Exercise 
IV. Arrange the words of the first six sentences 
in columns as shown in the model. Analyze the 
sentences of the paragraphs. 

Model 
nouns pronouns adj. verbs adv. prep. conj. 
God They serve well 

creatures who serve 

his 

1. They serve God well who serve his creatures. 

2. The rising blushes which the cheek o'erspread 
Are opening roses in a lily's bed. 

3. Flowers are the sweetest things that God ever made. 

4. Wealth is the least gift that God has bestowed on 

mankind. 

5. The river welcomes pie like an old friend. The tune 

that it sings is the same that flowing water repeats 
all around the world. 

6. A touch of surprise is essential to perfect happiness. 

7. In his boyhood, Ruskin's mother was his only teacher. 

He read aloud with her every week-day morning 
from Pope's translation of Homer and the novels 
of Sir Walter Scott; and, on Sunday, " Robinson 
Crusoe " and " Pilgrim's Progress." He learned 
long chapters from the Bible, and once a year 
read it through from beginning to end. 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 220, Sec- 
tion 25. 



CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES 69 

Section 43. Adjective Clauses witli Conjunctive 
Adverbs 

I. (a) Knowledge is the wing wherewith we fly to 

heaven. 

(b) One never forgets the home where he Hved during 

childhood. 

(c) Near the spot where Tell leaped ashore now 

stands a chapel. 

(d) That was a glorious moment when Aurora drew 

back the curtain of night. 

In the clause in (a), substitute "with which" for 
"wherewith." What does "with which" modify.^ What 
kind of modifier is this phrase.^ Does the word "where- 
with" modify the same word as the phrase.'^ Ask your- 
selves similar questions about "where" and "when" in 
sentences (b), (c), and (d). 

What word does the clause in (a) modify ? What kind of 
modifier is the clause ? What word connects the clause to 
the word it modifies ? What word serves as a connective in 
(b) ? in (c) ? in (d) ? 

In these sentences there are words which modify 
the verbs in the clauses, and at the same time con- 
nect the clauses to the words the clauses modify. 
As modifiers, they are adverbs; and as connectives 
they are conjunctions. They are called conjunctive 
adverbs. 

A conjunctive adverb is an adverb that connects a clause 
to the word it modifies. 

Exercise 

II. Analyze the following sentences. 

Model. " I know^ a bank where the wild thyme blows" 
is a sentence. " I " is the simple subject unmodified ; " know 



70 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

a bank where the wild thyme blows" is the complete predi- 
cate. "Know bank" is the simple predicate, composed of 
the verb "know" and the object "bank." The verb is 
unmodified. " Bank " is modified by the adjective "a" and 
the adjective clause "where the wild thyme blows." Of 
the clause, "the wild thyme" is the complete subject; and 
"blows" is the unmodified predicate. The simple subject 
is modified by the adjectives " the " and " wild." " Where " 
connects the clause to the word " bank," and is a modifier 
of the verb "blows." 

1. There is a National Cemetery on the ground where 

the battle of Gettysburg was fought. 

2. At a time when no white settlers dwelt beyond the 

Alleghanies, Boone entered Kentucky. 

3. He does not know the name of the city whence he 

came. 

4. I remember the day when 1 had my first pair of 

boots. 

5. In the tropics, where the heat is intense, little meat 

is eaten. 

6. I remember, I remember, 
The house where I was born. 

7. For a cap and bells our lives we pay. 
Bubbles we buy with a whole soul's tasking. 

8. Cannon to right of them, 
Cannon to left of them, 
Cannon in front of them 
Volley 'd and thundered. 

9. Now has the lingering month at last gone by. 

10. A brazen altar stood beneath their feet. 
Whereon a thin flame flickered in the wind. 

11. Every night I go abroad 
Afar into the land of Nod. 

12. The day will come when all men will acknowledge 

the sway of righteousness and peace. 



CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES 71 

13. He has sounded forth the trumpet that shall never 
call retreat; 
He is sifting out the hearts of men before his judg- 
ment seat. 
14- Of all the boys that were schoolmates then 

. There are only you and I. 
15. The meanest floweret of the vale, 

The simplest note that swells the gale, 
The common sun, the air, the skies, 
To him were opening Paradise. 

Section 44. Adverbial Clauses 

I. In Section 43, conjunctive adverbs were used to 
introduce adjective clauses. Conjunctive adverbs 
have another and more common use. 

(a) When I was sick and lay abed, 

I had two pillows at my head. 

(b) A guest is unwelcome when he stays too long. 

(c) Count the cost before you go to Rome. 

(d) After the tempest has passed, the calm will come. 

(e) Strike while the iron is hot. 

(f ) Where the leader of a flock goes, the sheep follow. 

(g) Where Mary went, the lamb went too. 

Show that in each of the sentences there is an adverbial 
modifier which contains a subject and a predicate. Such 
modifiers are called adverbial clauses. 

Exercise 

II. Analyze the following sentences, following 
the models already given. 

1. All will be gay, when noontide wakes anew the but- 

tercups. 

2. Care keeps his watch in every old man's eye; 
And where care lodges, sleep will never lie. 



72 . GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

3. When stars pursue their solemn flight, 
Oft in the middle of the night, 

A strain of music visits me. 

4. Ill fares the land, to hastening ills a prey, 
Where wealth accumulates and men decay. 

5: Noiseless falls the foot of time 
That only treads on flowers. 

6. The west is broken into bars 
Of orange, gold, and gray; 

Gone is the sun, come are the stars, 
And night infolds the day. 

7. True hope is swift, and flies with swallows' wings ; 
Kings it makes gods, and meaner creatures kings. 

8. Put your trust in God, my boys, and keep your 

powder dry. 

9. Fortune makes a fool of him whom she makes her 

darling. 
10. Hardly had the war begun, when England issued a 
" proclamation of neutrality." This acknowledged 
the belligerency of the Confederacy. The North 
had hoped for the sympathy of the English in 
the contest ; when England so quickly issued this 
proclamation, there was considerable resentment. 
France soon took the same step, and other coun- 
tries followed. 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 221, Sec- 
tion 26. 

Section 45. Conjunctions 

I. So far in the study of adverbial clauses, they 
have been used to denote time and place. But there 
are many other relations that may be expressed by 
these clauses. 



CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES 73 

(a) If the blind lead the blind, both shall fall into the pit. 

(b) Manufacturing towns spring up near coal-mines, 

because coal is a very important source of power. 

(c) Though thy smile be lost to sight, 
To mem'ry thou art dear. 

(d) We sow that we may reap. 

(e) Laziness travels so slowly that poverty soon over- 

takes him. 

What is the idea expressed by the clause in (a) ? Does 
the clause modify "both".? "pit"? "shall MV ? Is the 
clause, then, adjective or adverbial ? Answer similar ques- 
tions about (b), (c), (d), and (e). 

What does " If " in (a) seem to you to do in the sentence ? 
Has it a connective value? Does "because" in (b) con- 
nect? Does it modify? Does "though" in (c) connect? 
Does it modify? Does "that" in (d) and (e) connect? 
Does it modify ? 

Such words as if, though, because, and that, when 
introducing an adverbial clause, are connectives; 
but they have no adverb idea in them. They are 
conjunctions. 

In Section 39 of this chapter, you learned that 
words that connect words are conjunctions. In Sec- 
tion 38, you learned that words which join independ- 
ent statements are conjunctions. Here are conjunc- 
tions joining dependent clauses to independent 
clauses. 

A conjunction is a word that connects words, phrases, 
or clauses. 

Exercise 

II. Analyze the following sentences. Tell whether 
the connective is a conjunctive pronoun, a conjunc- 
tive adverb, or a conjunction. 



74 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

1. Justice Is always violent to the offending party; for 

every man is innocent in his own eyes. 

2. In his high place he had borne himself so well that all 

had feared him, and most had loved him. 

3. Quarrels would not last long if the fault were only on 

one side. 

4. When the fight begins within himself, 
A man 's worth something. 

5. The tigers and the demons fought and fought until 

the tigers had killed the demons. 

6. If ever household affections and love are graceful 

things, they are graceful in the poor. The ties that 
bind the wealthy and the proud at home may be 
forged on earth ; but those which link the poor man 
to his humble hearth are of the true metal and bear 
the stamp of heaven. 

7. The woods are glistening fresh and fair as if they had 

been new-created overnight. The water sparkles 
with merriment, and tiny waves are dancing and 
singing all along the shore. Scarlet berries of the 
mountain-ash hang around the lake like a neck- 
lace of coral. A pair of kingfishers dart back and 
forth across th'e bay, in flashes of living blue. A 
black eagle swings silently around his circle, far up 
in the cloudless sky. The air is full of pleasant 
sounds, but there is no noise. The world is full 
of joyful life, but there is no crowd and no confu- 
sion. All is fresh and sweet, calm and clear and 
bright. 

Henry van Dyke. 

Section 46. Clauses of Degree 

I. (a) I am very proud of my mother. 

(b) He is not so proud of his mother as he should be. 

(c) I am as proud of my mother as I can be. 



CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES 75 

(d) I am more proud of my mother than you are 

(proud) of yours. 

(e) I am prouder of my mother than you (are proud) 

of yours. 

(f) No one is prouder of his mother than Barrie (is 

proud of his). 

In (a), what adverb modifies "proud"? in (b) ? What 
does " so" tell in (b) ? In (b), what besides "so" tells how 
proud ? Does the adverbial clause seem to you to modify 
" proud," or " so proud," or " so" ? If it modifies any one 
of them, it must be what kind of clause ? What does it tell ? 
In (d), what adverb modifies " proud " ? In (e), what in the 
word "prouder" takes the place of "more" in (d) ? What 
do the clauses in (d), (e), and (f), modify? What do they 
tell ? What words are used to connect these clauses to the 
words they modify ? 

Do you think you would use the word "proud" in the 
clause in (d) ? Is it a common thing to omit words in 
clauses like those in (e) and (f) ? Are these words necessary 
to the analysis of the sentence ? 

When two subjects having a common quality are 
compared, an adverbial clause indicating degree is 
very frequent. Clauses of degree are generally in- 
troduced by the conjunctions as and than. 

Omission of the attribute complement, or of the 
copula and the attribute complement, is very common 
in clauses of degree. Omitted words must always be 
supplied in analysis. 

Exercise 
II. Analyze the following sentences. 

Model. "The night was as black as pitch" is a sen- 
tence. The complete subject is "The night." The com- 
plete predicate is "was as black as pitch." The simple 



76 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

subject is " night," modified by the adjective "The." The 
simple predicate is "was black," composed of the copula 
"was" and the attribute complement "black." The 
attribute complement is modified by the adverb "as." 
"As" is modified by the adverbial clause expressing de- 
gree. Of the clause, "pitch" is the subject; "is" under- 
stood is the copula; and "black" understood is the 
attribute complement. The second " as" is the connective. 

1. The sun was never so bright, and the piney air was 

balmier sweet than dreams. 

2. Here Skugg lies snug 
As a bug in a rug. 

3. The human body is a steed that goes freest under a 

light rider, and lightest of all riders is a cheerful 
heart. 

4. Who are these that fly as a cloud, and as the doves to 

their windows ? 

5. A little foot never supported a great character. 

6. A plank had drifted against the bank, and upon this 

the little creature scrambled out, as dry as the cat 
at home under the roaring kitchen stove. 

7. A cold, unkind word checks and withers the blossom 

of the dearest love, as the delicate rings of the vine 
are troubled by the faintest breeze. 

8. A barren, stony hillside slopes gradually to the marsh 

where the wrens live. Here I was met by a fifth 
deceiver, a killdeer plover. The killdeer's crocodile 
tears are bigger and more touchingly genuine than 
even the quail's. And, besides all her tricks, she has 
a voice that fairly drips woe. 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 222, Sec- 
tion 27. 



CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES 77 

Section 47. Noun Clauses. Complex Sentence. 

(a) Many believe the statement. 

(b) Many believe that there never was a good v^ar. 

(c) That there ever v^ras a good war is doul)tful. 
(d). The truth is that there never was a good war. 

(e) It is true that there never was a good war. 

(f) The truth that there never has been a good war 

is held by many. 

In (a), what is the object complement.^ What is the 
object of " believe " in (b) 'i Has this object a subject and a 
predicate ? What is it then 't What is the subject of (c) ? 
What is the attribute in (d) .^ What is the real subject in 
(e) l! What use has the clause in (f) "i What class of words 
is usually subject, object, attribute, and appositive.^ 
What, then, is a good name for these clauses 'i 

A noun clause may be a subject, an object com- 
plement, an attribute complement, or an appositive 
modifier. 

Most noun clauses are introduced by that. When 
the word that is used to introduce a noun clause, it 
has no meaning or connective value. It is termed an 
introductory word. 

Many noun clauses have no introductory word. 
In the illustrative sentences, ^^tliat" could be omitted 
from all except (c) and (f). 

We have already learned the terms clause, simple 
sentence, and compound sentence. We are now ready 
to learn to state the difference between a dependent 
clause and an independent clause, and to define simple, 
compound, and complex sentences. 



78 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

A clause is a part of a sentence containing a subject and 
a predicate. 

A dependent clause is one that is used as an adjective, an 
adverb, or a noun. 

An independent clause is one that forms no part of 
another clause. 

A simple sentence is one that contains but one subject 
and predicate, either of which may be compound. 

A compound sentence is one that contains two or more 
independent clauses. 

A complex sentence is one that contains one independent 
clause and one or more dependent clauses.^ 

Section 48. Noun Clauses as Clements of 
Sentences 

I. If we arrange the sentences containing noun 
clauses according to the kind of predicate each has, 
the relation of the clause to the whole sentence will 
be clear. 

SUBJECT COPULA PREDICATE ATTRIBUTE 

(a) That there ever was 





a good war 


is 


doubtful. 


(b) 


The truth 


is 


that there never 
was a good war. 


(c) 


It (That there never 








was a good war) 


is 


true. 




SUBJECT 


VERB 





(d) The truth (that there 



never was a good war) is held 



SUBJECT 




VERB 




OBJECT COMPLEMENT 


(e) Many 




believe 




that there never 
was a good war 


» For 


punctuation 


[, see page 


259, 


V, 5 and a 



CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES 79 

Exercise 

II. Frame a sentence about " printing " that shall 
have a noun clause used as a subject ; about " the 
Panama Canal " that shall have a noun clause as 
object ; about " air-ships " that shall have a noun 
clause used as attribute complement. Frame a sen- 
tence that shall contain a noun clause used as an 
appositive of the Avords '^ a fact." 

Exercise 

III. Analyze the following sentences. 

Model. " That there ever was a good war is doubtful " 
is a complex, declarative sentence ; complex, because . . . ; 
declarative, because . . . The complete subject is " That 
there ever was a good war" ; the complete predicate is " is 
doubtful," composed of the copula " is" and the attribute 
complement " doubtful." Both copula and attribute are 
unmodified. Of the noun clause, the complete subject is " a 
good war"; and the complete predicate is "was ever." 
The simple subject is "war," modified by the adjectives 
"a" and " good." The simple predicate is the verb " was." ^ 
It is modified by the adverb "ever." "There" is an intro- 
ductory word; and "That" introduces the noun clause. 

1. That the sun is a globe of molten matter is generally 

believed. 

2. Cornwallis learned too late that Washington was 

marching toward Yorktown. 

3. Observers have found that great flocks of migratory 

birds fly at night. 

4. Money is not essential to a gentleman. 

5- A gentleman never dodges; his eyes look straight 
forward. 

* (See Section 34, page 53.) The ccntenee might read, "That a 
good war ever existed is doubtful." 



80 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

6. Emerson said that great men write their names on 

the world. 

7. Caesar is born, and for ages we have a Roman 

Empire. 

8. Statistics show that every third generation is a ditch- 

digger. 

9. He spake well who said that graves are the footsteps 

of angels. 

10. And 't is my faith that ev'ry flower 
Enjoys the air it breathes. 

11. The night was thick and hazy 

When the Piccadilly Daisy 
Carried down the crew and captain in the sea; 

And I think the water drowned 'em, 

For they never, never found 'em. 
And I know they did n't come ashore with me. 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 224, Sec- 
tion 28. 

Section 49. Noun Clauses as Object Complements 

I. (a) "Will they be Indians.^" inquired my brother. 

(b) "They won't be Indians," I replied at last. 

(c) "Are you quite sure?" Harold asked. 

(d) "Quite," I answered. 

(e) My brother said that they would not be Indians. 

What is the subject of sentence (a) ? the object ? Is the 
object a phrase or a clause ? What is the object in (b) ? in 
(c) ? in (d) ? in (e) .^ What kind of sentences are they all ? 
What kind of quotations are in the first four sentences ? in 
the last sentence ? 

In reported conversation, the words that are 
spoken usually form noun clauses that are object 



CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES 81 

complements. This is true whether the report gives 

the exact words of the speaker or not ; that is, 

whether it is a direct or an indirect quotation/ 

In conversation people omit many words. In (d), 

the full sentence would be " ' I am quite sure/ I 

answered." Omitted words must be supplied in 

analysis. 

Exercise 

II. Analyze the following sentences. 

1. " Diligence is the mother of good luck," said Frank- 

lin. 

2. The Venerable Bede was called "The Father of 

English Prose." 

3. He translated the Gospel of St. John into English 

so that the uneducated read it, 

4. He worked on this translation until the last day of 

his life. 

5. At last, when evening came, he closed his eyes in 

weariness. 

6. The young man said, "There is yet one sentence, 

dear master." 

7. "Take your pen and write quickly," said Bede. 

8. "Now it is finished," said the youth. 

9. "Yes, it is finished," answered Bede. 

10. He turned to the altar, chanted a few words of praise 
to God, and closed his eyes forever. 

Section 50. Indirect Questions as Noun Clauses 

I. (a) Is it so .? (b) Tell me whether it is so. 

(c) What are you do- (d) The question is what 

ing.^ are you doing. 

(e) Where has he been .^ (f) He told me where he had 

been. 

1 For punctuation of quotations, see pages 259 and 260, VIII and 
IX ; V, 7, and VI, 2. 



8S GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

(g) Why do birds sing ? (h) They have no sense of 

why they sing. 

(i) Why did he do it ? (j) It is a question why he 

did it. 

In the first column are direct questions ; in the other the 
same questions are found in an indirect form. Indirect 
questions are noun clauses. They may be object comple- 
ments, as in (b) and (f) ; real subject, as in (j) ; attribute 
complement, as in (d) ; principal term of a prepositional 
phrase, as in (h). 

Exercise 

II. Write direct questions about the following 
subjects : surgery, General Wolfe, France, Cubans, 
a Scotch collie, homing pigeons, graphite, a stream. 
Bunker Hill. 

Change the sentences which you have made so 
that the questions will be indirect. Use three of the 
indirect questions as object complements ; three as 
subjects ; two as attribute complements. 

Exercise 

III. Analyze the following sentences. 

1. Tell me who were there. 

2. Show me what you have in your pockets. 

3. He did not understand how a balloon floated. 

4. It's surprising to me how my nephew despises little 

girls. 

5. Tom proved that he had in him the lasting stuff of a 

true man and a hero. 

6. I knew how sweet the water tasted from that kind of 

cup. 

7. It is wonderful how soon a piano gets into a log hut 

on the frontier. 



CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES 83 

8. Over in the meadow. 

In a hole in a tree, 
Lived a mother-bluebird 

And her little bluebirds three. 
"Sing!" said the mother; 

"We sing," said the three; 
So they sang and were glad, 
In the hole in the tree. 

Over in the meadow, 

Where the clear pools shine, 
Lived a green mother-frog 

And her little froggies nine. 
"Croak!" said the mother; 

"We croak," said the nine; 
So they croaked and they plashed, 

Where the clear pools shine. 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 224, Sec- 
tion 29. 

Section 51. Review 

I. What are the four classes of sentences based 
upon their use ? Where does the interrogative word 
of a sentence usually stand? Is this word always the 
subject? Give examples to prove your answer. Give 
examples of two classes of words used independently 
in a sentence. What is an interjection ? What are 
the three classes of sentences based upon their form ? 
Define them. What is a clause ? How does a clause 
differ from a simple sentence ? Define an adjective 
clause? What generally introduces an adjective 
clause? What is the difference between a relative 
and a conjunctive pronoun ? Can a conjunctive ad- 



84 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

verb introduce an adjective clause ? Give examples 
to prove your answer. What two classes of words 
may introduce an adverbial clause? May the connec- 
tive of an adverbial clause ever be omitted? What 
is a conjunction? What is the difference between 
a conjunction and a conjunctive adverb ? What is 
a noun clause ? What kind of w^ords generally in- 
troduces a noun clause? Is "that" a conjunction 
when it introduces a noun clause? Can the other 
words be omitted as "that" can, when introducing 
noun clauses ? A quotation usually forms what kind 
of a clause in a sentence ? Does it make a difference 
whether the quotation is direct or indirect ? What is 
an indirect quotation ? What elements of a sentence 
may a noun clause be ? Give examples. 

Exercise 
II. The following selection is taken from "Jack 
and the Bean-Stalk." Analyze the sentences, and 
classify the words. In the case of the verbs, tell 
whether they are complete or incomplete, transitive 
or intransitive. 

Jack walked all day ; and when the sun set he came to 
the Giant's house. He went up to it and saw a plain woman 
by the door. This was the Giant's wife. Jack spoke to her 
and asked her for food and place where he could sleep. 

"What!" she said. " Do you not know ? My husband is 
a Giant. He eats people. He will eat you if he finds you 
here." 

Jack was in great fear, but he would not give up. . . . 
They went througli a great hall, and then through some 
large rooms. All was grand and gloomy. They came to a 



CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES 85 

dark passage and went through it. There was a little light, 
and Jack could see bars of iron at the side. Behind the bars 
were wretched people. They were the prisoners of the 
Giant. 

They came to a room where a table was set. Jack sat down 
and ate. He was very hungry, and soon forgot his fears. 
But while he was eating there came a loud knock at the out- 
side door. It was so loud that the whole house shook. The 
Giant's wife turned pale. 

" What shall I do .^" she cried. " It is the Giant. He will 
kill you and kill me too! What shall I do .^" 

"Hide me in the oven," said Jack. There was no fire 
under it, and Jack lay in the oven and looked out. The 
Giant came in and scolded his wife, and then he sat down 
and ate and drank for a long time. Jack thought he would 
never finish. At last the Giant leaned back in his chair 
and called out in a great loud voice, — 

" Bring me my hen!" 

His wife brought a beautiful hen and placed it on the 
table. 

"Lay!" roared the Giant, and the hen laid an egg of 
solid gold. 

" Lay another! " and the hen laid another. So it went on. 
Each time the hen laid a larger egg than before. The Giant 
played with the hen for some time. Then he sent his wife to 
bed, but he sat in his chair. Soon he fell asleep, and then 
Jack crept out of the oven and seized the hen. He ran out 
of the house and down the road. He kept on till he came 
again to the bean-stalk, and climbed down to his old home. 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 225, Sec- 
tion 30. 



CHAPTER III 

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS 
THEIR CLASSIFICATION AND DECLENSION 

Section 52. Review of Parts of Speech 

I. We have already learned to classify words ac- 
cording to their uses in sentences. These classes 
are called parts of speech. 

A part of speech is one of the classes into which words 
are divided according to their uses in sentences. 

There are eight parts of speech : nouns, pronouns, 
adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, 
and interjections. 

Exercise 

II. Classify the words in the following paragraph 
as nouns, pronouns, verbs, and the other parts of 
speech represented. 

His honesty excited no less admiration. Two incidents 
particularly impressed the community. On one occasion 
when he discovered that he had taken six and a quarter 
cents from a customer, he walked three miles that evening 
after the store was closed and returned the money. Again, 
he weighed out a half pound of tea, as he supposed. It was 
night, and this was the last thing he did before he closed 
the store. When he entered in the morning he discovered a 
four-ounce weight in the scales. He saw the mistake, and 
hurried off with the remainder of the tea. This unusual 
regard for the rights of others soon won for him the title of 
"Honest Abe." 

Adapted from Tarbell's Lincoln. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS 87 

Section 53. Classes of Nouns 

I. A noun is a word that names an object. (See Sec- 
tion 5.) 

Many words not usually nouns become nouns 
when they are used to name objects of which we 
think or speak. Notice the sentences below : — 

(a) None but the brave deserve the fair. 

(b) " Yes " is easily said ; " no " causes some people to 

stammer 

(c) '* As " will usually be found in its proper place; 

" like " is a word to be carefully watched. 

Horse is a name common to many animals ; but 
Bucephalus is the name of one particular horse 
owned by Alexander the Great. Horse is a common 
noun; Bucephalus is a proper noun. 

A common noun is a word that names any one of a class. 

A proper noun is a word that names an individual to 

distinguish it from others of the class to which it belongs.^ 

(a) A flock of snowbirds came fluttering down into my 

fir-tree. 

(b) The priests of Israel were chosen from the tribe of 

Levi. 

(c) And the Philistine said, " I defy the armies of Israel 

this day." 

Does the word "flock" mean one or more than one 
object .^ Does it mean one flock ? Can there be more than 
one flock? Does each of the words, — "flock," "tribe," 
"armies," — denote a collection of individual objects? 
Would a good name for this kind of noun be collective ^ ? 

' For the use of capitals in writing proper nouns, see page 259, 1, 2. 
■^ Look in a dictionary for the word collective. 



88 



GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 



A collective noun is one that in the singular names a 
collection of objects. 

Exercise 

II. Write the list of nouns given below, classify- 
ing them as common or proper. Be sure to begin 
all the proper nouns with a capital letter. 



child 

botany 

boston 


friendship 

victoria 

June 


eagle 

hyena 

earth 


germany 

servant 

heart 


street 


flower 


neptune 


wisdom 


Oregon 
new Orleans 


tar 
acid 


factory 
word 


bible 
alps 


davy 
friend 


poe 
Sunday 


arctic 
charles 


st. peter's 
canary 



III. Classify the nouns in the following sentences. 

1. Give me neither poverty nor riches. 

2. The more wheels there are in a watch, the more there 

are to get out of order. 

3. I like books, — I was born and bred among them, — 

and have the easy feeling, when I get into their 
presence, that a stable-boy has among horses. 

4. Love and Death enter boarding-houses without 

asking the price of board. 

5. Like an army defeated 
The snow hath retreated. 

6. Forth into the forest straightway 
All alone walked Hiawatha. 

7. Meantime the heaven wept upon our heads ; and the 

windows grew brighter as the night increased in 
darkness. 

8. But though French soldiers show to ill advantage on 

parade, on the march they are gay, alert, and 
willing, like a troop of fox-hunters. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS 89 

9. I have always been fond of maps, and can voyage in 
an atlas with the greatest enjoyment. 

10. As I sat outside of the hotel in the course of the after- 

noon, the sweet, groaning thunder of the organ 
floated out of the church like a summons. 

11. 'T is now the summer of your youth. Time has not 

cropt the roses from your cheek, though sorrow 
long has washed them. 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 226, Sec- 
tion 31. 

Section 54. Pronouns 

A pronoun is a word that represents an object without 
naming it. 

(a) It was a summer evening. 

Old Kaspar's work was done. 
And he before his cottage door 

Was sitting in the sun ; 
And by him sported on the green 
His little grandchild, Wilhelmine. 

(b) Call not that man wretched who has a child to 

love. 

(c) Music was a rose-lipped shell that murmured of the 

eternal sea. 

(d) He that is stricken blind cannot forget 
The precious treasure of his eyesight lost. 

fe) What is glory? 

(f) Who is the King of Glory? 

fg) To be or not to be, — that is the question. 

(h) Although the am(£ba has neither lungs nor gills, it 
breathes in oxygen and gives out carbonic-acid 
gas, which is just what a horse does with its organs 
of respiration. 



90 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

Perhaps the best way to realize the value of pronouns is 
to try to write a sentence without them. In (a), instead of 
the pronouns referring to *' Kaspar," substitute the name 
"Kaspar." What, then, does the use of pronouns avoid? 
It is difficult to express the thought in (b) without the use 
of the pronoun " who," although it could be written, " That 
man has a child to love; call not that man wretched." In 
what respect is the sentence with the pronoun better than 
the sentence without the pronoun ? Express the thought of 
(c) without using the pronoun. What is the advantage in 
the use of the pronoun ? 

To express the thought in (d) without the use of pro- 
nouns, it would be necessary to insert, in place of " he," the 
name of every person that has been stricken blind. Again, 
when the pronoun asks a question, as in (e) and (f), it is 
nearly impossible to find another way of expressing it. 
What, then, is the advantage of the pronouns in (d), (e), 
and (f ) ? 

Pronouns serve tv^o purposes in our language : — 

1. They avoid needless and awkward repetition. 

2. They stand for indefinite or general subjects 

of thought. 

In (a), what word names the object which "he," "his," 
and " him " represent ? In (b), what word names the object 
to which "who" refers ? The word that names the object 
referred to by a pronoun is called the antecedent of the 
pronoun. Name the antecedents of the pronouns in (c) ; 
(d). In (g), is the antecedent of "that" a word, a phrase, 
or a clause.^ Does "which" refer to " amoeba" in (h) ? to 
" lungs " ? to " oxygen " ? What, then ? Is its antecedent a 
word, a phrase, or a clause.'' In (e), is the antecedent ex- 
pressed ? Is it ever expressed when the pronoun asks a 
question ? Could it be found if the answer to the question 
were given ? 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS 91 

The antecedent of a pronoun is the word or words 
naming the object which the pronoun represents. 

The antecedent generally precedes the pronoun ; 
but it may come after it. When the pronoun asks a 
question, the antecedent is found in the answer. 
The antecedent is usually a single word ; but it may 
be a phrase, or a clause. 

Section 55. Classes of Pronouns 

I. (a) As often as I came back to his door, his love met 
me on the threshold. 

(b) In friendship, your heart is like a bell struck every 

time your friend is in trouble. 

(c) Two persons cannot remain friends long, if they 

cannot forgive each other little failures. 

(d) No man thinks himself covetous or stingy. 

(e) She arrays herself like the lily, 
In robes of shining white. 

(f) A dream itself is but a shadow. 

(g) An honest man is he, and hates the slime 
That sticks on filthy deeds. 

(h) Whosoever exalteth himself shall be abased. 
(i) I will do whatsoever thou sayest unto me. 
(j) Who can refute a sneer? 
(k) What profiteth it a man, if he gain the whole 

world and lose his own soul ? 
(1) The Lord is my light and my salvation; whom 

shall I fear ? the Lord is the strength of my life ; 

of whom shall I be afraid ? 
(m) That is Lee's home on Arlington Heights ; this is 

Mount Vernon, the home of Washington. 
(n) Cornelia said of her boys, " These are my jewels." 
(o) We always like those who admire us; we do not 

always like those whom we admire. 



92 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

(p) Many have tried to reach the North Pole. 

(q) No one can shirk responsibility. 

(r) Each must act for himself. 

(s) Love all, trust few, do wroijig to none. 

Group the pronouns in these sentences that plainly refer 
to the speaker ; those that clearly refer to the person spoken 
to ; those that refer to the person spoken of. 

These are called personal pronouns, because they clearly 
indicate what person is meant. 

Do such words as "himself," "herself," "myself," 
"yourself" tell who is meant, — the speaker, the person 
spoken to, or the person spoken of ? Why might they be 
called compound personal pronouns ? 

What kind of pronoun is "That" in (g) ? (See Section 
41.) In (h) and (i), what syllables have been added to the 
simple conjunctive pronouns ? Can you think of any other 
syllables that are sometimes added to "who," or "which," 
or "what".^ What would be a good name for these pro- 
nouns ? 

In (j), (k), and (1), pronouns are used to ask questions. 
What would be a good name for them.^ 

In (m), what two words represent objects without nam- 
ing them ? Do these two words point out, so that you know 
that one is near and the other far ? In (n), what word does 
the same thing ? In (o), a word is used to point out classes 
of persons, though it does not name them. These words are 
called demonstrative pronouns. 

Does " Many," in (p), represent persons without naming 
them.^ What words in (q), (r), and (s) do the same.^ Do 
you know exactly to whom the words "many," "one," 
" each, " " all, " " few, " and " none " refer ? They represent 
objects indefinitely, and so are called indefinite pronouns. 

Pronouns are divided into five classes: personal, 
conjunctive, interrogative, demonstrative, and indefinite. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS 93 

A personal pronoun is one that indicates whether the 
object represented is the speaker, the person or thing 
spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of. 

The principal personal pronouns are I, thou, you, 
he, she, and it. (For other forms, see Section 63.) 

The words which represent the speaker are called 
first personal pronouns; those which represent the 
person or thing spoken to are called second personal 
pronouns; and those which represent the person or 
thing spoken of are called third personal pronouns. 

Forms of the simple personal pronouns are 
united with the syllable self or selves to form the 
compound personal pronoims. They are : myself, our- 
selves, thyself, yourself, yourselves, himself, herself, it- 
self, and themselves. 

A conjunctive pronoun is one that joins a dependent 
clause to the word it modifies. 

The principal conjunctive pronouns are who, which, 
that, what; rarely but and as. 

Conjunctive pronouns, because they relate, or re- 
fer, to the object named by the antecedent, are often 
called relative pronouns. 

Forms of the simple conjunctive pronouns are 
united with the syllables so, ever, and soever to form 
the compound conjunctive pronouns. 

An interrogative pronoun is one used to ask a question. 

The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and 
what. 

A demonstrative pronoun is one that points out or 
directs attention to an object without naming it.^ 

^ See a dictionary for definitions of demonstrate and demonstrative. 



94 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

The demonstratives are this, these, that, and those. 

An indefinite pronoun is one that represents objects 
indefinitely without naming them. 

The indefinites in most common use are : one, 
none, few, many, other, another, all, any, several, some, 
each, either, neither, each other, one another. 

The words given here as demonstrative and in- 
definite pronouns are at times used as modifiers of 
nouns, and are then adjectives. 

Exercise 
II. Classify the pronouns in Sections 52 and 53, 
and in the following sentences. 

1. It is an ill wind that blows nobody good. 

2. Put ojff thy shoes- from off thy feet, for the place 

whereon thou standest is holy ground. 

3. He smiled over my donkey-driving, as I might have 

smiled over his orthography, or his green tail-coat. 

4. No one knows the stars who has not slept beneath 

them. 

5. If we find but one to whom we can speak out of our 

heart freely, we have no ground of quarrel with the 
world or God. 

6. Nobody is so old he does n't think he can live a year. 

7. But what are past or future joys ? 

The present is our own ; 
And he is wise who best employs 
The passing hour alone. 

8. The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold. 
And his cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold ; 
And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea, 
Where the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS 95 

Exercise 

III. Bring to class ten sentences, original or se- 
lected from books. Of these, three shall contain 
personal pronouns ; two, conjunctive pronouns ; one, 
an interrogative pronoun ; one, an indefinite pro- 
noun ; two, compound personal pronouns ; and one, 
a compound conjunctive pronoun. 

Exercise 

IV. Classify the nouns and pronouns in the letter 
by Phillips Brooks, printed on pages 199 and 200. 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 228, Sec- 
tion 32. 

Section 56. Construction of Nouns 

(a) Happiness is the natural flower of duty. (Section 4.) 

(b) Fiery horse with strength of wing, 
I am now your lord. (Section 4.) 

(c) No friendship can excuse a sin. (Section 13.) 

(d) God is making commerce his missionary. (Section 

16.)- 

(e) Pilate gave Barabbas his freedom. (Section 29.) 

(f) I'll not budge an inch. (Section 30.) 

(g) The bird flew far above the forest. (Section 26.) 
(h) The woodman's axe lies free, 

And the reaper's work is done. (Section 31.) 
(i) It is the lark, the herald of the morn. (Section 31.) 
(j) Haste thee. Nymph, and bring with thee 

Jest and youthful Jollity. (Section 37.) 
These sentences are illustrations of the common con- 
structions of nouns. Ask yourselves the use of every noun 



96 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

printed in full-faced type. If you do not know them all, the 
section numbers will suggest the answers. 

What four uses of nouns should you say were the most 
common ? Is there any change in the form of the noun to 
indicate these changes in its use ? What one use of a noun 
has a special form ? 

The noun may have these uses in a sentence. It 
may be : — 

1. a subject ; 

2. an attribute complement ; 

3. an object complement; 

4. an objective complement; 

5. an indirect object ; 

6. an adverbial modifier; 

7. the principal word of a prepositional phrase ; 

8. a possessive modifier ; 

9. an oppositive modifier ; 

10. independent in word of address. 
(For two other constructions of nouns, see Sec- 
tions 56 and 98.) 

Section 57. Construction of Pronouns 

I. (a) May they on beds of down 
Sweetly sleep. 

(b) This is he that was spoken of by the prophet 

Esaias. 

(c) What have they made him now ? 

(d) Franklin has told us the story of his life. 

(e) Shall we forget the sacred debt 
We owe our mother isle ? 

(f ) And then we saw the pope, — him toward whom 

a great part of the Christian world looks for 
guidance. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS 97 

(g) O thou that rollcst above, round as the shield of 

my fathers! 
(h) Dappled horse, with mane of gold, 

Horse of Wonder, come to me ! 

Make a complete list of the constructions of personal pro- 
nouns found in these sentences. Are they the same as the 
constructions of nouns ? If not, what is omitted, or what 
construction is added ? 

(i) They that touch pitch will be defiled. 

(j) ^^^ learned too late the man that he was. 

(k) 'T is the prettiest little parlor 
That ever you did spy. 

(1) As governor of the state, which a political up- 
heaval had made him, he displayed the same 
daring stupidity. 

(m) The distance which baby has come is long for 
little feet. 

(n) Those are the bells whose sunset chime called 
little Patrasche to prayer. 

(o) The man upon whom Fortune smiles is the man 
that works. 

Make a complete list of the constructions of conjunctive 
pronouns found in these sentences. Are there any not to 
be found among the personal pronouns ? Are there any 
constructions of pronouns not found among the list of 
constructions of nouns ? Have you in these two lists of 
constructions of pronouns all the constructions named in 
the list of noun constructions ? Which of these pronoun 
constructions do you think the most common ? 

Pronouns have the same constructions as nouns. 

Exercise 
II. Frame three sentences in which pronouns are 
used as subjects^ — one containing a conjunctive 



98 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

pronoun, one an interrogative, and one a demonstra- 
tive pronoun. Bring sentences in which a personal 
pronoun is used as object ; a relative pronoun as 
object; an interrogative as object. Frame a sen- 
tence in which an interrogative is used as attribute 
complement. (See Section 36.) Frame another in 
which an indefinite pronoun is an attribute comple- 
ment. Frame sentences using four kinds of pronouns 
as indirect objects. Frame sentences in which each 
kind of pronoun is used as the principal word of a 
prepositional phrase. 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 229, Sec- 
tion 33. 

Section 58. Inflection for Number 

Write sentences in which the word "player" is used as 
subject ; object ; principal word of a prepositional phrase ; 
indirect object ; and as possessive modifier. Write sentences 
in which the plural of the word "player " is used in the 
same ways. 

In your sentences, how many forms of the word are used 
to denote one ? How many forms denote more than one ? 
One of the forms in the singular is used when the word is 
a possessive modifier. For how many constructions is the 
other form used ? Is this true for the plural also ? 

Frame sentences in which the first personal pronoun is 
used as subject; object complement; principal word of a 
prepositional phrase ; possessive modifier ; indirect object ; 
attribute complement. How many forms of this pronoun 
are there in the singular ? in the plural ? 

Nouns have two forms in the singular and two in 
the plural. One of these forms is used for one pur- 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS 99 

pose only, — to denote possession. The other form is 
used for every other construction of the noun. 

Personal pronouns have three forms in the singu- 
lar and three in the plural. One is used to denote 
possession ; and of the other two, each has a variety 
of uses. 

The change in the form of a word to denote a 
change in its meaning or its use is called inflection. 

Number is that modification of a noun or pronoun 
which indicates whether one object is meant or more than 
one. 

The singular number of a noun or pronoun indicates but 
one object.^ 

The plural number of a noun or pronoun indicates more 
than one object. 

Section 59. Formation of Plurals of Nouns 

1. 1. The regular method of forming the plural 
of English nouns is by adding s to the singular form. 

2. When the singular form of a noun ends in s, 
X, z, sh, ch, or with the sound of zh, the plural is 
usually formed by adding es to the singular. 

3. Fifteen nouns ending in f or fe change the 
letters to v and add es to form their plurals.^ They 
are : beef, calf, elf, half, knife, leaf, life, loaf, self, 
sheaf, shelf, thief, wharf, wife, wolf. 

4. Nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant 
generally add es to form their plurals ; as, calico, 
calicoes. Other nouns ending in o are regular; as, 
cameo, cameos. 

^ See, however, definition of Collective Noun, Section 53. 
^ The word staff" ha.s two plurals, staffs and staves. 



100 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

Exceptions. The following nouns ending in o preceded 
by a consonant add s only to form their plural : albino, alto, 
banjo, canto, casino, chromo, contralto, dynamo, halo, 
lasso, memento, octavo, piano, proviso, quarto, solo, 
soprano, two, tyro. 

5. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant 
change the y to i and add es to form their plurals ; 
as, lily, lilies. But when the y is preceded by a vowel, 
these words are perfectly regular in forming their 
plurals; as, valley, valleys. 

Exercise 
II. Write the plurals of the following nouns. Use 
the plurals for a spelling test. 

march apostrophe lioness 
brush lynx picture 

box lion piano 

Write sentences containing the plurals of three 
words whose singular ends in o; three whose sin- 
gular ends in f or fe; three whose singular ends 

in y. 

Section 60. Formation of Plurals (continued) 

I. Many nouns in Old English formed their plu- 
rals by the addition of en. Some of these retain this 
ending in our modern English ; as, ox, oxen. 

Some nouns form their plurals by changing the 
vowel in the middle of the word. These are Old 
English nouns; such as, mouse, mice; tooth, teeth. 

Some nouns adopted from foreign languages form 
their plurals as they regularly do in those languages ; 



arithmetic 


desk 


grammar 


hyphen 


bench 


comma 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS 101 

as, analysis, analyses ; stratum, strata; phenomenon, 
phenomena. 

The plurals of letters, figures, symbols, and words, 
when considered simply as words, are formed by 
adding the apostrophe and s; as, " Cross your t's and 
dot your i's"; '^ Give the table of T's"; "Do not 
begin paragraphs with and's." 

Proper names form their plurals in two ways : it 
is correct to say " the Misses Brown," or " the Miss 
Browns." Of men, the form is always "Messrs. 
Brown." 

Compound nouns, made up of a noun and some 
modifier of it, form their plurals by making the 
principal words plural; as, court-martial, courts- 
martial ; son-in-law, sons-in-law. Some compounds, 
however, are so much like single words that they are 
so regarded, and form their plurals regularly; as, 
forget-me-not, forget-me-nots; cupful, cupfuls. 

Some words ending in man are not compounds, 
and form their plural by adding s ; as, Germans, Ot- 
tomans, Mussulmans, Brahmans, talismans. 

Many nouns have the same form in the singular 
and plural ; as, sheep, deer. 

Exercise 

II. Write sentences containing the plurals of the 
following words : parenthesis, datum, tableau, formula, 
memorandum, alumnus, oasis, curriculum. You may 
need to use a dictionary to learn what these words 
mean and how they form their plurals. 

Write the plurals of the following words : piano- 



102 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

forte, handful, stepson, talisman, Brahman, Miss 
Jones, Dr. Little, aid- de-camp, juryman, commander- 
in-chief, good-for-nothing. 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 230, Sec- 
tion 34. 

Section 61. Inflection for Case 

Case is that modification of a noun or pronoun which 
shows its construction in a sentence. 

Because there are three forms of a pronoun to 
indicate its use in a sentence, nouns and pronouns 
are said to have three cases. They are nominative, 
possessive, and objective. 

It must be clear that a noun has in reahty but two case- 
forms : a possessive and a common case-form. This last 
is used for all the constructions of the nominative and 
objective. 

A noun or pronoun is in the nominative case when it is a 
subject, an attribute complement, or is used independently. 

A noun or pronoun is in the objective case when it is an 
object complement, an indirect object, an objective com- 
plement, an adverbial modifier, the principal word of a 
prepositional phrase. 

A noun or pronoun is in the possessive case when it is a 
possessive modifier. 

An appositive is always in the case of the word it modi- 
fies. It may be nominative, objective, or possessive. 

Section 62. Formation of Possessives 

I. 1. To form the possessive of singular nouns, 
add an apostrophe and s to the simple form of the 
noun; as, lady, lady's. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS 103 

2. If, however, the word ends in an s sound, and 
has more than one sylhible, only the apostrophe is 
usually added to form the possessive; as, for good- 
ness' sake, Xerxes' army. 

3. As most words in the plural end in s, to avoid 
the hissing" sound of another s, only the apostrophe 
is added to the plural forms to make the possessive 
plural; as, ladies, ladies'. 

4. If the plural does not end in s, the possessive 
is formed by the addition of an apostrophe and s; 
as, men, men's; oxen, oxen's. 

5. The possessive of compound words is formed 
by adding the apostrophe and s to the last word ; as, 
commander-in-chief's, son-in-law's. 

6. The possessive of appositive phrases is formed 
by adding the sign to the last word only; as, my 
cousin John's book. 

7. When two or more nouns name the joint pos- 
sessors or owners of anything, the possessive sign is 
added to the last only ; as, Ivers and Pond's pianos, 
Gilbert and Sullivan's operas. Smith and Oakley's 
store. 

8. If two or more nouns name separate owners of 
anything, or if the names are connected by or or nor, 
each word takes the sign of the possessive ; as, 
Beethoven's and Mozart's sonatas ; Smith's and Oak- 
ley's stores; Webster's or Henry's orations. 

9. The word of is frequently used before a name 
to denote possession ; as, ^^ the works of Bach," for 
" Bach's works." 

Sometimes it is necessary to use both signs of the 



104 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

possessive to avoid being misunderstood. For ex- 
ample, if you read "Rembrandt's picture is one of 
the finest I have ever seen/' you would not know 
whether it means a portrait of the great painter, or 
a picture by this artist. To avoid this, both signs of 
the possessive are used, — the word of followed by 
the name with the possessive sign. " This picture of 
Rembrandt's is one of the finest I have ever seen " 
is perfectly clear to all. 

In general, only the names of persons, animals, 
and personified objects take the sign of the posses- 
sive. With other names the word of is used. We say 
"the leaves of the tree," not "the tree's leaves"; 
" the seam of the rock," not " the rock's seam." 
Exercise 

II. Write sentences containing the possessive of 
the following words : Charles ; Mason and Hamlin 
(together); Beethoven and Wagner (separately) ; the 
first President ; Jefferson ; Shakespeare. 

Section 63. Declension 

The change in the form of a word is called inflec- 
tion. A word is said to be inflected when all its forms 
are given in order. Nouns and pronouns are in- 
flected for number and case. The inflection of a noun 
or pronoun is called its declension. 

Declension of Nouns 







SINGULAR 


PLURAL 


inat 


ive and Objective 


friend 


friends 


3ssi\ 


^e 


friend's 


friends' 


inat 


ive and Objective 


man 


men 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS 



105 





SINGULAR PLURAL 


Possessive 


man*s men^s 


Nominative and Objective 


Will 


Possessive 


Will's 


Nominative and Objective 


James 


Possessive 


James's (pronounced 




Jameses) 



Declension of Pronouns 



PERSONAL pronouns 



SINGULAR ] 


PLURAL 


Nominative 


I 


we 


Possessive 


my or mine 


our or ours 


Objective 


me 


us 


Nominative 


thou or you 


ye or you 


Possessive 


thy or thine, your or yours 


your or yours 


Objective 


thee or you 


you 


Nominative 


he she it 


they 


Possessive 


his her or hers its 


their or theirs 


Objective 


him her it 
Interrogative Pronouns 


them 




SINGULAR 


PLURAL 


Nominative 


who 


who 


Possessive 


whose 


whose 


Objective 


whom 


whom 


Nominative 


what 


what 


Possessive 


whose 


whose 


Objective 


what 


what 


Nominative 


which 


which 


Possessive 


(whose) ^ 


(whose) ^ 


Objective 


which 


which 



^ Of which is generally preferred to ichose in speaking of things. 



106 



GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 



Demonstrative Pronouns 







SINGULAR 




PLURAL 


Nominative 




this 




these 


Objective 
Nominative 




this 
that 




these 
those 


Objective 




that 




those 




Indefinite Pronouns 








SINGULAR 




PLURAL 


Nominative 




one 






Possessive 




one's 






Objective 
Nominative 




one 
other 




others 


Possessive 




other's 




others' 


Objective 




other 




others 




Conjunctive Pronouns 




The conjunctive pronouns who and which are in- 
flected like the interrogatives. That, but, and as 
have no inflections. Each has but the one form. 



Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 231, Sec- 
tion 35. 



Section 64. Uses of Personal Pronouns 



I. (a) 

(b) 
(c) 
(d) 

(e) 

(f) 



Thou wilt keep him in perfect peace whose mind 

- is stayed on Thee. 

Hail to thee, blithe spirit! 

Open ye the gates! 

He never owned the foreign rule, 

No master he obeyed. 
See the sun himself! on wings 
Of Glory up the east he springs. 
Each should do his duty. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS 107 

(g) The author who speaks about his books is almost 
as bad as a mother who talks about her chil- 
dren. 

(h) She dwelt among the untrodden ways, 
Beside the springs of Dove. 

(i) Happy is the man that findeth Wisdom. She is 
more precious than rubies; and all the things 
that thou canst desire are not to be compared 
unto her. 

(j) Spring hangs her infant blossoms on the trees. 

(k) The Mississippi is the longest river. Its source is 
in Lake Itasca. 

(1) The elephant finds many uses for its trunk. 

(m) This child is not mine as the first was ; 
I cannot sing it to rest. 

(n) It blew itself out yesterday. 

(o) It will be hot to-morrow. 

(p) O, it is excellent 

To have a giant's strength ; but it is tyrannous 
To use it like a giant. 

(q) Patience itself may be worn out by a constant 
chattering. 

(r) Napoleon himself found a Waterloo. 

(s) Know thyself. 

(t) Rembrandt painted himself. 

(u) Soldiers control themselves. 

(v) A boy has his troubles, and a girl has hers. 

(w) Mine seem more serious than theirs. 

(x) We must not yield to ours. 

(y) Each must conquer his. 

From what book is (a) taken ? Do you know any other 
sentences using "thou" or "thee".'' Do they come from 
the same book ? (b) is the first line of a poem. Can you 
think of another line of poetry using "thou" or "thee".^ 



108 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

Do we use " ye " in common conversation ? What class of 
people use " thou " and " thee" in their daily conversation ? 

Has the sun sex ? Why is it spoken of as " he" in (c) ? 
Should not girls do their duty as well as boys ? Why, then, 
is "his" used in (f) instead of some other pronoun ? 

Has Wisdom really any sex? Why, then, do we find 
words in (i) indicating the female sex? In (j), why use 
"her" instead of "its"? 

In (k), why do you find "Its" instead of "His" or 
"Her"? Has an elephant sex? Why do we use "its," 
then, in (1) ? Is it common to speak of a child as " it, " as 
in (m) ? 

In (n), has "It" an antecedent ? What will be " hot to- 
morrow " ? Has "It" an antecedent in (o) ? What is the 
use of " it" in (p) ? (See Section 34.) 

For what purpose is "itself" used in (q) ? "himself" in 
(r) ? What element of the sentence is "thyself" in (s) ? 
To whom does "himself" refer in (t) ? What element of 
the sentence is "themselves" in (u) ? 

What is the regular possessive of the pronoun "she" in 
(v) ? Is " hers " a possessive ? Is its use that of a possessive 
modifier ? or an object complement ? What is the subject 
of (w) ? What form of the pronoun is it ? What is the use 
or construction of " ours" in (x) ? Is it the objective case ? 
What case is " his" in (y) ? 

Thou, thy, thine, and thee were once the only 
singular forms of the second personal pronoun. 
These forms are now used only : — 

1. in addressing the Deity ; 

2. in the serious language of the Bible or of 

poetry; 

3. among the Quakers in common conversation. 

The plural ye is used only in the nominative case. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS 109 

and is seen only in the Bible and in poetry. Because 
these words are used only in serious language, they 
are said to make the solemn inflection. 

You, your, and yours were once used only as the 
objective and possessive plural of the second per- 
sonal pronoun. Gradually you came into common use 
in place of ye in the nominative plural. Then these 
plural forms displaced the old singulars thou, thine, 
thee. Now both singular and plural of the second 
personal pronoun is you; but the verb used with you 
is always in the plural form, whether the pronoun 
means one or more than one. We should never say, 
" You was " ; we should always say, " You were." 

The third personal pronoun is inflected for num- 
ber and case ; and it is also inflected in the singular 
to indicate the sex of the object referred to. 

He, his, or him is used when its antecedent 
names : — 

1. a person or animal of the male sex ; 

2. a personified object that by reason of its 

size, strength, or fierceness is thought of 
as male ; 

3. a person spoken of without regard to sex, re- 

presented by some such word as each, 
neither, every one, etc. 
She, her, or hers is used when its antecedent 
names : — 

1. a person or animal of the female sex; 

2. a personified object that by reason of its 

grace, attractiveness, delicacy, or timidity is 
thought of as female. 



110 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

It or its is used when the antecedent names: — 

1. an object without sex ; 

2. an object whose sex is disregarded. 
It has two special uses. It may be : — 

1. an introductory subject (Section 34) ; or, 

2. an impersonal subject. 

In such a sentence as " It rains/' the word " It " 
has no meaning whatever. It is used with the verb 
to express a natural phenomenon. It seems almost to 
be a part of the verb. When used in this way, it is 
called an impersonal subject. 

They, their, theirs, and them are used of all objects, 
the language containing no plural pronouns to dis- 
tinguish sex. 

Note. No other pronouns have any inflection for sex. 
A few nouns in our language are inflected to indicate sex ; 
as, lion, lioness ; hero, heroine ; duke, duchess. The num- 
ber of these is so small, however, that there seems no 
reason for discussing the subject of gender of nouns or 
pronouns. 

The compound personal pronouns are used for 
two purposes. They are used: — 

1. for emphasis ; and 

2. as reflexive objects. (See (n), in this section.) 

Besides the regular possessive forms, there are a 
few secondary forms that are not used as modifiers. 
Mine, thine, ours, yours, hers, and theirs are used to 
mean both the possessor and the thing possessed. 
His may be used in the same way. These secondary 
forms have the same use in a sentence as the nouns 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS 111 

modified would have. For example, in (v) " hers " 
means ^^ her troubles"; "troubles" would be an 
object complement in the sentence ; and " hers " has 
the same construction. It is a possessive form in the 
objective case. 

Exercise 

II. Select and parse the nouns and personal pro- 
nouns in the following sentences. 

To parse a noun or pronoun, give : — 

1. its classification ; 

2. its inflection ; 

3. its number ; 

4. its case ; 

5. its construction in the sentence. 

Model. " My house is the house of prayer ; but ye have 
made it a den of thieves." 

The word "My" is a first personal pronoun. It is in- 
flected in the singular — nominative, I; possessive, my 
or mine; objective, me : in the plural — nominative, we; 
possessive, our or ours ; objective, us. It is in the singular 
number and possessive case. It is a possessive modifier of 
"house." 

The word " house" is a common noun. It is inflected in 
the singular — nominative and objective, house; posses- 
sive, hou.se's : in the plural — nominative and objec- 
tive, houses; possessive, houses'. It is in the singular 
number and nominative case. It is the subject of the 
sentence. 

1. O Thou that dwellest in the heavens! behold with 

compassion 
Thy children on earth. 

2. Wisdom hath builded her house. 



112 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

3. When Freedom from her mountain height 
Unfurled her standard to the air, 

She tore the azure robe of night 
And set the stars of glory there. 

4. Breathes there the man, with soul so dead, 
Who never to himself hath said, 

This is my own, my native land ? 

5. I traveled among unknown men. 

In lands beyond the sea; 
Nor, England! did I know till then 
What love I bore to thee. 

'T is past, that melancholy dream! 

Nor will I quit thy shore 
A second time; for still I seem 

To love thee more and more. 

Among thy mountains did I feel 

The joy of my desire; 
And she I cherished turned her wheel 

Beside an English fire. 

Thy mornings showed, thy nights concealed 

The bowers where Lucy played ; 
And thine, too, is the last green field 

That Lucy's eyes surveyed. 

Wordsworth. 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 231, Sec- 
tion 36. 

Section 65. Uses of Interrogative Pronouns 

(a) Who hath known the mind of the Lord ? 

(b) Whose servant are you ? 

(c) Whom seek ye ? 

(d) Who is he that will plead with me .^ 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS 113 

(e) Of whom shall I be afraid ? 

(f) Which now of these three was neighbor unto him 

that fell among thieves ? 

(g) Which is better, — honor or riches ? 

(h) What shall a man give in exchange for his soul ? 
(i) What is life worth? 
(j) What have they called me? 

By questions similar to those in Section 64, determine 
the uses of the interrogative pronouns in sentences (a) to (j). 

Who asks about persons ; what asks about things ; 
which asks about either persons or things. Which 
is peculiar in this ; it asks for a choice, either be- 
tween two persons or things, or among several. 

The construction of interrogative pronouns is the 
same, whether found in direct or indirect questions. 

Which and what are many times used to modify 
nouns. These words are then interrogative adjec- 
tives, not interrogative pronouns. 

Example. Which path will he choose ? 

What commandment is greatest? 

Section 66. Uses of Conjunctive Pronouns 

I. (a) And he is oft the wisest man who is not wise at all. 

(b) He prayeth best who loveth best 

All things both great and small. 

(c) Consider the little mouse, how sagacious an 

animal it is, which never intrusts its life to one 
hole only. 

(d) It had been snowing all day, which made our 

progress slow and tiresome. 
fe) Children are the anchors that hold a mother to 

life, 
(f) Wealth is not his that has it, but his that enjoys it. 



114 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

(g) Slight not what *s near. 

(h) I have the same studies as you have. 

(i) Such as have pure hearts shall inherit the kingdom 

of heaven, 
(j) Any person who steals my purse steals trash. 
(k) Who steals my purse steals trash. 
(1) Anything which makes men good Christians. 

makes them good citizens. 
(m) Whatever makes men good Christians makes them 

good citizens. 
(n) Whosoever hath not patience, hath not wisdom. 
(o) And 't is my faith that every flower 

Enjoys the air it breathes. 
(p) The toys I played with are dear to me. 

Tell the antecedent of each of the pronouns in sentences 
(a) to (f). Do these pronouns represent persons or things ? 
Can you name the antecedent of the pronoun in (g) ? 
Using the definition of pronoun, prove that "as" in sen- 
tences (h) and (i) is a pronoun. Does the pronoun "as" 
represent persons or things ? 

Analyze sentence (j). What one word in (k) performs 
the same use as "Any person who " in (j) ? This word, 
then, is the subject of the whole sentence and of the clause. 
Compare (1) and (m). Tell the two uses of "Whatever." 
Tell the two uses of "W^hosoever" in (n). 

Look through the sentences carefully, and notice where 
each pronoun stands in the clause, — near the beginning 
or near the end. 

In (o), what does the clause " it breathes" modify .^ What 
is the connecting word ? Where is the connective in (p) ? 
(See Section 42.) 

The conjunctive pronoun, who, whose, or whom, 
is used when its antecedent names a person, or an 
object thought of as a person. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS 115 

The conjunctive pronoun which is used when the 
antecedent names things. 

The conjunctive pronoun that may be used when 
the antecedent names either persons or things. 

The conjunctive pronoun what may be used when 
things are referred to. As, when used as a conjunc- 
tive pronoun, may refer to either persons or things. 
When as is a conjunctive pronoun, that or which can 
always be substituted for it. 

A conjunctive pronoun usually stands very near 
the word it modifies. This is so that there can be 
no mistake about what the pronoun refers to. This 
places the conjunctive pronoun at the beginning of 
the clause of which it is a part. The word that al- 
ways stands first in its clause. 

Omission of a conjunctive pronoun used as the 
object of a verb or as the principal word of a prepo- 
sitional phrase is frequent. It must be supplied in 
analysis. (See Section 42.) 

A conjunctive pronoun has no inflection for num- 
ber; the singular and plural are alike. Its number 
is determined by the number of its antecedent. 

To parse a conjunctive pronoun, the same facts 
should be given as are given regarding personal 
pronouns. (See Section 64, Exercise II.) 
Exercise 

II. Bring to class three sentences containing the 
conjunctive pronouns who, whose, whom; four con- 
taining the conjunctive pronouns which, what, that, 
as; and two containing who and what used as inter- 
rogative pronouns in indirect questions. 



116 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 232, Sec- 
tion 37. 

Exercise 

III. Analyze the following sentences. Parse the 
personal, interrogative, and conjunctive pronouns. 

1. A friend exaggerates a man's virtues; an enemy 

inflames his crimes. 

2. Discover the opinion of your enemies, which is com- 

monly the truest. 

3. He that is not with us is against us. 

4. Whosoever is delighted in solitude is either a wild, 

beast or a god. 

5. The hands which planted the lilies of France in the 

heart of the wilderness had never guided a plow- 
share or wielded a spade. 

6. The song that we hear with our ears is only the song 

that is sung in our hearts. 

7. Success is full of promise till men get it, and then it 

seems like the nest from which the bird has flown. 

8. There is no royal road to anything. One thing at a 

time, all things in succession. That which grows 
fast, withers rapidly; that which grows slowly, 
endures. 
g. Good name in man and woman, dear my lord. 
Is the immediate jewel of their souls : 
Who steals my purse steals trash ; 't is something, 

nothing ; 
'T was mine, 't is his, and has been slave to thou- 
sands ; 
But he that filches from me my good name 
Robs me of that which not enriches him 
And makes me poor indeed. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS 117 

Section 67. Uses of Demonstrative and Indefinite 
Pronouns 

I. (a) This is m^- choice of the books ; I do not Hke that, 

(b) Some place the bHss in action, some in ease. 

(c) One that has newly learned to speak and go 
Loves childish plays. 

(d) None pities him that's in the snare. 

(e) None grow so old 

Not to remember where they hid their gold. 

(f) All is for the best. 

(g) All are needed by each one; 
Nothing^ is orood or fair alone. 

(h) A little in one's own pocket is better than much in 

another's purse. 
(i) Many are called, but few are chosen. 
(j) Either of the plans seemed impracticable to the 

far-seeing Lincoln ; and neither was adopted. 
(k) Not any of the numerous candidates was chosen. 
(1) Damon and Pythias loved each other. 
(m) Bear ye one another's burdens. 

What is the difference in meaning between "this" and 
"that," "these" and " those ".^ How many are meant by 
"One" in (c) ? by "None" in (d) .^ "None" in (e) ? 
Account for the use of " is" in (f) and " are" in (g). What 
is the difference in meaning between " much" and " many" 
in (h) and (i) .^ When should you use " either "or " neither," 
and when should you use " any" or " not any" ? Study (j) 
and (k) for your answers. How many persons are men- 
tioned in (1) ? How many may be meant in (m) ? When 
should you use "each other" and when "one another".^ 

This and these are used to point out things near 
at hand; while that and those are used of things 
remote in time or place or thought. 



118 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

One and any were originally closely related; but 
one is now used only of one object; while we use 
any when referring to one or to several. 

Example. Any suits me. 
Any suit me. 

None, the negative of one, strictly speaking, should 
be used of but one object, but it is now common to 
use none when referring to more than one ; and when 
but one is meant, to use the words not one, or no one. 

All, when it means everything, is singular; all, 
when it means the whole number of things, is plural. 

Many refers to number and is plural ; much refers 
to quantity and is singular. 

Either and neither are used when a choice between 
two is offered ; one and not one, any and not any, 
when the choice is among several. 

Each other is used when speaking of two; one an- 
other when speaking of more than two. They should 
be treated as one word. 

Exercise 

II. Bring two sentences to class containing de- 
monstrative pronouns, and three sentences contain- 
ing indefinite pronouns. Also bring five sentences 
containing the same words used as adjectives. 

Exercise 

III. Analyze the following sentences. Parse all 
the pronouns. 

1. To those whose god is honor, disgrace alone is sin. 

2. Come one, come all! this rock shall fly 
From its firm base as soon as I. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS 119 

3. An idle person is like one that is dead. 

4. All that glitters is not gold. 

5. Few, few shall part where many meet. 

6. God made both tears and laughter; and both for kind 

purposes. 

7. Hitherto the two rival European nations had kept 

each other in check upon the American continent, 
and the Indians had in some measure held the 
balance of poAver between them. 

8. Seldom will one see in rich families that athletic 

soundness and vigor of constitution which is seen 
in cottages, where Nature is cook and Necessity 
the caterer. 

9. Boys who are born in a small town are born free and 

equal. Every boy, good or bad, rich or poor, stands 
among boys on his own merits. The son of a 
banker who owns a turning pole in the back yard 
does homage to the baker's boy who can sit on the 
bar and drop and catch by his legs ; while the good 
little boy, who is kept in wide collars and cuffs by a 
mistaken mother, gazes through the white paling of 
his father's fence at the troop headed for the swim- 
ming hole, and pays all the reverence which his 
dwarfed nature can muster to the sign of the two 
fingers. In the social order of boys who live in 
country towns, a boy is measured by what he can 
do, and not by what his father is. And so, Winfield 
Hancock Pennington, whose boy name was Piggy 
Pennington, was the King of Boyville. 

Section 68. Review 

Give examples to show that some words, usually 
other parts of speech, may at times become nouns. 
Can a collective noun have a plural? If so, write 



120 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

two sentences to illustrate. What is declension? 
How many forms has each noun? How many con- 
structions or uses? Which three constructions are 
most common? What beside nouns may be the 
antecedents of pronouns? In how many construc- 
tions may personal pronouns be used? In how many 
constructions may conjunctive pronouns be used? 
What is another name for conjunctive pronouns? 
What is peculiar about the use of hers and yours? 
Give all the rules for the use of his and her. What 
kind of pronoun is often omitted? In what con- 
structions may it be omitted? What pronoun has 
the most forms in its declension ? What pronoun 
always begins with a capital letter? What is the 
singular of "these" and "those"? Why should 
you say " between you and me " and not " between 
you and I"? Is there any such word as " his'n " ? 
Is this right : " It's teeth were sharp " ? Can you 
have the form it's ? Illustrate. 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 233, Sec- 
tion 38. 



CHAPTER IV 

ADJECTIVES 
THEIR CLASSIFICATION AND COMPARISON 

Section 69. Adjectives 

An adjective has already been defined as a word 
that modifies the meaning of a noun or pronoun. 
(See Section 20.) A study of the following sentences 
will enable you to make a classification. 

(a) Long sentences in a short composition are like large 

rooms in a small house. 

(b) These seeds are destined to bear but little fruit. 

(c) There are no birds in last year's nest. 

(d) Soul, thou hast much goods laid up for many years. 

(e) The rich man wished to know what commandment 

is greatest. 

(f) I have learned, in whatsoever state I am, therewith 

to be content. 

(g) Wherefore let none in any wise be reckless, but 

calmly take whatever gifts the gods provide. 
(h) Many active young men are enlisting for the war. 
(i) Athletic, enthusiastic, restless men are enlisting for 

the war. 

In the sentences above, point out the adjectives that 
describe. In the same sentences, find the adjectives that 
limit the meaning of the nouns by pointing out; by telling 
the number; the quantity. 

In (e), is "what" a pronoun or an adjective? What 
would be a good name for it ? What would be a good 



122 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

name for "whatsoever" in (f) and "whatever" in (g) as 
adjectives ? 

In (h), what word modifies "men"? Does "active" 
modify "men"? or does it modify "young men"? Does 
" Many" modify *' men" ? or does it modify " active young 
men" ? Can you see any reason why there are no commas 
between these adjectives ? In (i), can you see a reason why 
there should be commas between the different adjectives? 

Adjectives are divided into two general classes : 
descriptive and limiting. 

A descriptive adjective is one that modifies the meaning 
of a noun or pronoun by denoting some quality or condition. 

A limiting adjective is one that modifies the meaning of 
a noun or pronoun by pointing out, or by denoting number 
or quantity. 

A few words commonly pronouns are at times 
adjectives. What and which may be interrogative 
adjectives in either direct or indirect questions. 

Section 70. The Articles 

Three words in very common use are a, an, and 
the. They are adjective modifiers; and they are 
generally called articles. 

The is the definite article. It may be used with both 
singular and plural nouns. 

A, an, is the indefinite article. It is a weakened form 
of " one." For this reason it is used only with singu- 
lar nouns. 

A is used before words beginning with a conso- 
nant sound ; an is used before words beginning 
with a vowel sound. 

Some persons, however, use an before a word beginning 



ADJECTIVES 123 

with h, if the word is more than two syllables long and is 
accented on the second syllable. We say "a man," "an 
ox," "a historical treatise" or "an historical treatise." 

The position of the article is before the noun, or 
before the modifiers of the noun. Only in rare 
instances do articles follow adjectives ; and these 
adjectives generally denote number or quantity ; as, 
half the, half a, both the, all the, many a, such a, what 
a. In such cases, it is well to parse the adjective and 
the article as if they were but one word. 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 234, Sec- 
tion 39. 

Section 71. Comparison of Adjectives 

I. (a) The sunset clouds are red. 

(b) Her lips are redder than a cherry. 

(c) The reddest berries are often the fruit of the 

palest flowers. 

(d) It is more blessed to give than to receive. 

(e) Conceit is the most incurable disease known to the 

human soul. 

(f) The scenery in the English lake district is less 

severe and rugged than that among the Scot- 
tish lakes ; but it is more companionable. 

(g) He is least fortunate who has no work to do. 

For what purpose do we change " red" to " redder" and 
" reddest" ? How many objects are compared when we use 
" redder" ? At least how many are thought of when we say 
"reddest"? Why do we not say "blesseder" .^ " incura- 
blest".^ If we wish to say that one object has less of a 
quality than another object, can we do it by endings? 



124 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

How ? Give examples. What part of speech are " more," 
"most," "less," and *' least" in the sentences above? 

Comparison is that modification of an adjective which 
indicates the degree of the attribute. 

There are three degrees of comparison: positive, 
comparative, and superlative. 

An adjective in the positive degree simply expresses an 
attribute. 

An adjective in the comparative degree indicates that one 
of two objects possesses an attribute in a higher or lower 
degree than the other. 

An adjective in the superlative degree indicates that one 
of three or more objects possesses an attribute in the 
highest or lowest degree. 

Adjectives are compared in two ways, — compari- 
son by endings, and by adverbs. The endings used are 
er and est. The adverbs joined with the adjective to 
form comparison are more and most; less and least. 

Adjectives of one syllable, and adjectives of two 
syllables if the inflected forms can be easily pro- 
nounced, are inflected by endings. 

Adjectives of more than two syllables, and adjec- 
tives of two syllables that cannot be easily pro- 
nounced when inflected, are compared by using the 
adverbs more, most; less, least. 

A few adjectives have an irregular comparison. 
The principal ones are : — 

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE 

l^^^^K better best 

( good 

bad worse worst 

little less least 





ADJECTIVES 




POSITIVE 


COMPARATIVE 


SUPERLATIVE 


j many 


more 


most 


( much 






late 


1 later 
( latter 


1 latest 
( last 


old 


S older 


{ oldest 
\ eldest 


( elder 


far 


j farther 


( farthest 


1 further 


( furthest 



125 



nigh 



nigher 



former 



J Highest 
( next 
foremost 
first 

Some adjectives cannot be compared, because their 
meaning will not permit it. They are : — 

1. most limiting" adjectives ; such as, one, first, 

thirty, this, those ; 

2. a few adjectives denoting quality ; such as, 

round, supreme, universal. 

Exercise 
II. Compare the adjectives in the following list. 



more 


apt 
red 


aged 
honest 


aspiring 
worst 


first 
clear 


generous 

tired 

lofty 


further 

high 

dainty 


industrious 

feeble 

helpful 


dense 
heavy 
flat 


lazy 

noble 

hard-fisted 


covetous 


pretty 


open 
Exercise 


severe 


just 


III. Use in good 


[ sentences 


the following adjec- 


tives. 










well 


furthest ] 


last 


next 


less 


elder 


1 


latest 


foremost 



much 



late 



many 



first 



126 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

Section 72. Construction of Adjectives 

I. (a) The tender flowers, weary and faded, drooped 

under the burning sun. 

(b) Rich and rare were the gems she wore. 

(c) Suffering had made Lincoln kind. 

In (a), what adjectives modify "flowers" ? Does it make 
any difference whether they stand before or after the noun .^ 
What adjectives modify " sun" ? What adjectives are there 
in (b) ? What element of the predicate do the first two 
form ? Of what do they name an attribute ? What word 
do they modify? What is "kind" in (c) ? (See Section 16.) 
What word does it modify r 

An adjective may be used in the following con- 
structions. It may be : — 

1. a direct modifier of a noun ; 

2. an attribute complement ; 

3. an objective complement. 

Exercise 

II. In the following sentences, parse the nouns, 
pronouns, and adjectives. 

To parse an adjective, give : — 

1. its classification ; 

2. its comparison, if it is compared ; 

3. its construction, with the word it modifies. 

Model. In sentence (a). Exercise I, " The" is a definite 
article. It modifies " flowers. " 

"Tender" is a descriptive adjective. It is compared: 
tender, tenderer, tenderest. It is a modifier of "flowers." 

"Rich" is a descriptive adjective. It is compared : rich, 
richer, richest. It is used as an attribute complement, and 
names an attribute of "gems." 

" Kind " is a descriptive adjective. It is compared : kind. 



ADJECTIVES 127 

kinder, kindest. It is used as an objective complement, 
and names an attribute of " Lincoln. " 

1. One swallow does not make a summer. 

2. Half a loaf is better than no bread. 

3. How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank! 

4. The cattle upon a thousand hills are the Lord's. 

5. It is only the first step which costs. 

6. Thy grandsire loved thee well ; 

Many a time he danced thee on his knee. 

7. But an old age, serene and bright, 
And lovely as a Lapland night. 

Shall lead thee to thy grave. 

8. Reeds and willows bordered the stream; and cattle 

and gray venerable horses came and hung their 
mild heads over the embankment. 

9. What a piece of work is man! 

10. The summer's flower is to the summer sweet. 

11. Far, vague, and dim 
The mountains swim. 

12. There was not a sound audible but that of the sheep- 

bells in some meadows by the river, and the 
creakinoj of a cart down the lonoj road that de- 
scends the hill. 

13. What a noble gift to man are the forests! What a 

debt of gratitude and admiration we owe to their 
utility and their beauty ! 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 234, Sec- 
tion 40. 



CHAPTER V 

VERBS 
THEIR CLASSIFICATION AND INFLECTION 

Section 73. Kinds of Verbs 
I. Review carefully Sections 10, 14, and 15. 

(a) A happy man is Farmer John. 

(b) His horses appear grateful for his kindness. 

(c) The new oats taste good. 

(d) The doves light round him, and strut, and coo. 
Which sentence contains a pure copula? In (b), what 

word is very nearly like a copula ? Does this word express 
more than "are" would in the same place? In (c), does 
"taste" have much more meaning than "are" would? 
These three verbs connect subject and attribute comple- 
ment; they are all copulative verbs. Is, because it does 
nothing but connect, is called a pure copula. 

There are but few copulative verbs; the most 
common ones are to be found in Section 10. 

In (d), "light," "strut," and "coo" express attributes 
of the subject. They are called attributive verbs. Most 
verbs are attributive. 

Is a transitive verb attributive ? Are all attributive verbs 
transitive ? Give examples that prove your answers. Are 
copulative verbs attributive ? Are they intransitive ? Are 
intransitive verbs ever attributive ? Give examples of each 
to illustrate your answers. 

A verb is a word that asserts. 

A transitive verb is one that asserts an action received 
by some object. 



VERBS 129 

An intransitive verb is one that does not assert an action 
received by an object. 

A copulative verb is one whose principal use is to connect 
the subject and its attribute complement. 

An attributive verb is one that in itself contains a predi- 
cate attribute. 

Exercise 

II. In the following stanzas from " Marion's Men," 
classify the verbs as transitive or intransitive, copu- 
lative or attributive. 

Then sweet the hour that brings release 

From danger and from toil ; 
We talk the battle over, 

We share the battle's spoil. 
The woodland rings with laugh and shout, 

As if a hunt were up. 
And woodland flowers are gathered 

To crown the soldier's cup. 
With merry songs we mock the wind 

That in the pine-tops grieves, 
And slumber long and sweetly 

On beds of oaken leaves. 

Well knows the fair and friendly moon 

The band that Marion leads, 
The glitter of their rifles, 

The scampering of their steeds. 
'T is life to guide the fiery barb 

Across the moonlit plain ; 
'T is life to feel the night-wind 

That lifts the tossing mane, 
A moment in the British camp — 

A moment — and away 
Back to the pathless forest. 

Before the peep of day. Bryant. 



130 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

Section 74. Active and Passive Voice 

I. (a) The sun cheers the whole world. 

(b) The whole world is cheered by the sun. 

(c) A small force held Fort Sumter. 

(d) Fort Sumter was held by a small force. 

(e) Birds build wonderful nests. 

(f) Wonderful nests are built by birds. 

In each pair of sentences the same thought is expressed. 
In which does the subject name the doer of the action ? In 
which does the subject name the receiver of the action ? 
When the subject names the receiver of the action, how is 
the doer of the action expressed ? 

Voice is that modification of a verb which indicates 
whether the subject names the doer or the receiver of the 
action. 

A verb is in the active voice when the subject names the 
doer of the action. 

A verb is in the passive voice when the subject names the 
receiver of the action. 

The passive voice is a convenience in language, 
because it enables a writer to express his thought, — 

1. when the name of the actor is unknown ; as, 

The Maine was destroyed in Havana harbor. 

2. when the name of the actor is of little impor- 

tance ; as. The laws have been enforced. 

3. when the speaker prefers not to name the actor; 

as, A pencil has been taken from my desk. 

Exercise 
II. Analyze the following sentences. Select the 
verbs, classify them, and tell whether they are in the 
active or passive voice. 



VERBS 131 

^Yhen the captain saw this, he sent patterns of the best 
things he had to the king of the country, who was so much 
pleased with them that he sent for the captain, who came to 
the palace. Here they were placed, as is the custom of the 
country, on rich carpets flowered with gold and silver. The 
king and queen were seated at the upper end of the room, 
and a number of dishes were brouglit in for dinner. They 
had not sat long, when a vast number of rats and mice 
rushed in, and devoured all the meat in an instant. The 
captain wondered at this, and asked if these vermin were 
not unpleasant. 

"They are very offensive," was the reply; "and the 
king would give half his treasure if he might be freed of 
them." 

Away went the captain to the ship, while another dinner 
was made ready. He put Puss under his arm, and soon 
returned to the palace. Again the table was covered with 
rats and mice. When the cat saw them, she did not wait 
for bidding, but jumped out of the captain's arms, and in 
a few minutes laid almost all of the rats and mice dead at 
her feet. The rest of them in their fright scampered away 
to their holes. 

Exercise 

III. Make six columns on your papers headed copu- 
lative, attributive, transitive, intransitive, active, pas- 
sive. At the left of these columns, make a list of the 
verbs and verb-phrases in the following* sentences. 
Place opposite each verb and verb-phrase a dash in 
the columns naming the classes to which it belongs. 

Model 
cop. attrib. trans. intr. active passive 

proclaimed 

was proclaimed 



132 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

1. The people proclaimed Csesar emperor. 

2. Caesar was proclaimed emperor by the people. 

3. The pot called the kettle black. 

4. Men do not become rich by what they get, but by 

what they keep. 

5. He who spends more than his wages will always be a 

beggar, and so will his family after him. 

6. Whenever the snow lies long and deep upon the 

ground, a flock of cedar-birds comes in midwinter 
to eat the berries on my hawthorns. 

7. I love old ways, and the path I was walking felt 

kindly to the feet it had known for almost fifty 
years. 

8. Corn-fields and vineyards grow now in deep hollows, 

which are very visibly volcanic craters whose lips 
were closed long before those of history were 
opened. 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 235, Sec- 
tion 41. 

Section 75. Participles 

I. (a) The silver tray holds twelve silver dishes. 

(b) The genie returned with a silver tray holding 

twelve silver dishes. 

(c) The horses were driven by the old servant, Hood. 

(d) The horses, driven by the old servant. Hood, nar- 

rowly escaped collision and death. 

What is the verb in (a) .^ What word in (b) denotes the 
same action ? In (b), what word does " holding" tell about, 
or modify ? What part of speech is it like ? So, too, in (e), 
"driven" is found to denote an action, like any verb; and 
to modify the meaning of a noun, like an adjective. These 
words are part verb and part adjective. A word that 



VERBS 133 

partakes of the nature of a verb and an adjective is a 
participle. 

In (a), in what voice is " holds" ? The participle " hold- 
ing" is in the same voice. In (c), in what voice is "were 
driven" ? " Driven" in (d) is in the same voice. The voice 
of a participle can always be determined by making a sen- 
tence in which the subject shall be the word the participle 
modifies, and the predicate shall be the thought of the par- 
ticipial phrase changed to an assertion. In this way, all 
the complements of the participle may also be understood. 
Notice carefully the sentences below. 

(e) The United States, stretching along the coast, was 

still a child among nations. 

(f) The United States stretched along the coast. 

(g) Being wise and honest, Washington was well fitted 

for his duties. 
(h) Washington was wise and honest. 
(i) Having elected him president, the people gave him 

loyal support. 
(j) The people have elected him president. 

In what voice is "have elected" in (j) ? The participle 
has the same voice in (i). What is the object in (j) ? It is 
the object in (i). What word is the objective complement 
in (i) and (j) ? What words serve as attribute complements 
in (h) ? They are attributes in (g). What phrase modifies 
the participle "stretching" in (e) ? 

A participle is a verbal adjective. 

A participle may be completed by an attribute, an 
object, or an objective complement, the same as 
a verb. It may also be modified by adverbs and 
adverbial phrases, the same as a verb. 



134 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

Exercise 

II. In the following sentences, change the parti- 
cipial phrases to sentences, as was done above. Then 
classify the verbs as copulative or attributive, tran- 
sitive or intransitive, active or passive. Also, give the 
modifiers of the verbs. 

Next, analyze the sentences as they are here given. 

Model, " The genie returned with a silver tray, holding 
twelve silver dishes " is a simple, declarative sentence. (The 
analysis is the same as of any simple sentence until the 
modifiers of "tray" are reached.) 

" Tray" is modified by the adjective " a" and the adjec- 
tive phrase "holding twelve silver dishes." "Holding" is 
a participle completed by the object "dishes." "Dishes" 
is modified by the adjectives "twelve" and "silver." 

1. Young Arvid Horn, following his leader, leaped 

into the first of the barges. 

2. Situated near the Gulf of Finland, the stout-walled 

town of Narva was the chief defense of Sweden. 

3. Landing at Parnau, Charles of Sweden pushed 

straight on. * 

4. Accepting nothing for himself, he spared the land 

from the horrors of war and pillage. 

5. In the beautiful city of Stockholm, surrounded by 

palaces and gardens, stands the statue of the boy- 
conqueror. 

6. Guarded at the base by captured guns and mortars, 

the hero lifts in his outstretched hand his un- 
sheathed sword. 

7- Plying their paddles, the companions of Marquette 
passed the Straits of Mackinac. 

8. They steered their canoes on the eddies of the 
Mississippi. 



VERBS 135 

9- On either hand rolled the prairie, dotted with groves, 

browsing elk, and deer, 
lo. Comrade, where wilt thou be to-night 

When the loosed storm breaks furiously ? 
My driftwood fire will burn so bright! 

To what warm shelter canst thou fly ? 
I do not fear for thee, though wroth 

The tempest rushes through the sky: 
For are we not God's children both, 

Thou, little sandpiper, and I ? 

Section 76. Forms of Participles 

Find or make five sentences containing partici- 
ples ending in ing; three with participles ending in 
ed; two with participles ending in d. 

(a) Seated by the meadow brook, he watched the fishes 

at play. 

(b) Bought at the expense of health, fun costs too dear. 

(c) Driven before the wind, the ship leaps from wave to 

wave. 

(d) We found a great weight of honey in a tree blown 

down by the storm. 

What letters form the ending of the participles in these 
sentences ? 

There are two simple participles : the present, end- 
ing in ing; and the past, ending in d, ed, n, en, or t. 
From these simple participles all the others are 
formed. They are named as follows : — 





ACTIVE VOICE 




Present 


drawing 


lifting 


Perfect 


having drawn 


having lifted 


Perfect Progressive 


having been 


having been 




drawing 


lifting 



136 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

PASSIVE VOICE 

Present being drawn being lifted 

Past drawn lifted 

Perfect having been drawn having been lifted 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 235, Sec- 
tion 42. 

Section 77. Infinitives 

I. (a) Birds get their food. 

(b) To get food is not easy. 

(c) Getting food is not easy. 

(d) He sings America. 

(e) He learns music. 

(f) He learns to sing. 

(g) He learns to sing America. 
(h) The miser is stingy. 

(i) To be stingy is weak. 
(j) Being stingy is weak. 
(k) To be stingy is to be weak. 
(1) Being stingy is being weak. 

(m) Thomas Arnold made many shiftless boys thrifty 

men. 
(n) To make a shiftless boy a thrifty man requires 
skill and patience. 
. (o) Making a shiftless boy a thrifty man requires 

skill and patience. 
What is the object of "get" in (a) ? The same relation 
is found in (b) and (c). In (d), what relation has "Amer- 
ica" to the verb " sings" ? It has the same relation to "to 
sing" in (g). "To sing," in (f) and (g), is the object of 
"learns," the same as "music" in (e). "Stingy" is what 
element of the sentence (h) ? " Stingy" has the same use in 
(i), (j), (k), and (1). What is the construction of "men" in 



VERBS 137 

(m) ? " Man" is the objective complement of "To make" 
in (n) and of "Making" in (o). 

In these sentences, there are forms of verbs tak- 
ing objects and attribute complements the same as 
verbs. Yet they are not verbs because they do not 
assert. 

What is the subject of (b) and (c) ? of (i), (j), (k), (1), 
(n), and (o) ? What is the object of "learns," in (f) and 
(g) ? the attribute complement of the copula " is," in (k) 
and (1) ? Here are words that take complements the same 
as a verb ; in sentences they have the uses of nouns. They 
are part noun and part verb. A word that partakes of the 
nature of a verb and of a noun is called an infinitive. 

Infinitives may be modified by adjectives, and by 
adverbs and adverbial phrases. 

An infinitive is a verbal noun. 

There are a number of infinitives in the following 
sentences without the word to. Find them. Read 
the sentences with, and without, the word to inserted 
before each infinitive; as. Bid him (to) come to the 
Feast. 

fa) I dare do all that may become a man. 

(b) He whose life is clean need have no fear. 

(c) Let my people go. 

(d) I feel the frightened bird's heart flutter. 

(e) Yet hear me, countrymen; yet hear me speak. 

Exercise 

II. Analyze the following sentences, using this 
model. 

Model. "To make a shiftless boy a thrifty man re- 
quires skill and patience" is a simple, declarative sentence. 
The simple subject is "To make a shiftless boy a thrifty 



138 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

man"; and the simple predicate is "requires skill and 
patience." The subject is composed of the infinitive "To 
make," completed by the object complement "boy" and 
the objective complement "man."* (The remainder of the 
analysis presents nothing new.) 

1. He asked to see the letter. 

2. To choose a manager was not easy. 

3. Little Fortunato wanted to go with him. 

4. Suddenly shots began to come from all directions. 

5. The commander tried to form his lines. 

6. Talking with Indians was often difficult. 

7. You need not speak; I know it all, 

8. My father taught me to know the birds. 

9. Learn of the little nautilus to sail. 

10. The people refused to pay their taxes. 

11. Reading good stories is profitable. 

' 12. The king meant to try the question with America. 

13. Columbus was the only one that dared sail the un- 

known seas. 

14. To get good out of all things is the mark of a great 

man. 

15. To lose one's temper is to weaken one's power. 

16. To live in hearts we leave behind is not to die. 

17. It is not easy to feel honest joy at the success of 

another. 

Section 78. Classes of Infinitives 

I. There are two kinds o£ infinitives : root infini- 
tives and infinitives ending in ing.^ 

Root Infinitives 

ACTIVE 

Present (to) go (to) lift 

Perfect (to) have gone (to) have lifted 

^ Infinitives in ing are often called gerunds. 



VERBS 



139 



PASSIVE 



Present 
Perfect 



Present 
Perfect 



(to) be lifted 

(to) have been lifted 

Infinitives in ing (Gerunds) 

ACTIVE 



going 
having gone 



lifting 
having lifted 



PASSIVE 

Present oeing lifted 

Perfect having been lifted 

Exercise 

II. Write all the infinitives of teach, lay, and sit. 
Make four sentences containing two kinds of in- 
finitives. 

Exercise 

III. Participles and infinitives, being derived from 
verbs, are included in the general term verbals. 

Care must be taken to distinguish present participles 
from infinitives ending in ing. A participle is an adjective ; 
an infinitive is a noun. The use of a word, not its spelling, 
determines what it is. 

In the following sentences, select the participles 
and infinitives, giving the reason for your classifi- 
cation. Give, also, any modifiers of these verbals, 
and any words which they themselves modify. 

1. Being perfectly natural and composed, he dispelled 

all suspicion. 

2. We saw the big moon rising lazily and warm across 

the lake. 

3. By rising early, he did his day's work before noon 

and went to walk in the afternoon. 



140 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

4. Hearing of this action by Parliament, the Virginia 

House passed a series of resolves. 

5. Upon hearing of this action by Parliament, the Vir- 

ginia House passed a series of resolves. 

6. They denounced a standing army. 

7. A small guard, irritated beyond endurance, fired into 

the crowd. 

8. The first act was the Boston Port Bill, closing the 

port of Boston. 

9. The second act changed the charter by extending 

the power of the crown. 

10. Town-meetings for electing officers were held only 

with the governor's permission. 

11. A fourth bill provided for quartering troops in 

America. 

12. In England, a designing courtier was intent upon 

making himself king. 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 237, Sec- 
tion 43. 

Section 79. Inflection of Verbs 

I. (a) The statue of Liberty stands at the entrance of 
New York harbor. 

(b) I stood in Venice on the Bridge of 'Sighs. 

(c) Sweet mercy is nobility's true badge 

(d) Her voice was ever soft. 
Gentle, and low. 

(e) He is a true man ; and he defends the weak. 

(f) If he be a true man, he will defend the weak. 

(g) If he were a true man, he would defend the weak. 
(h) I am no girl, to be made pale with words. 

(i) Thou art proved, I know, and I am young. 
(j) For we are all, like swimmers on the sea, 
Poised on the top of a huge wave of fate. 



VERBS 141 

(k) But Sohrab look'd upon the horse and said : — 
" Is this, then, Ruksh ? How often, in past days 
My mother told me of thee, thou brave steed, 
My terrible father's terrible horse!" 

Why is not the same verb used in both sentences, (a) 
and (b) ? in (c) and (d) ? In (e), (f), and (g), the subjects 
and attribute complement are the same, "he" and "man," 
but the verb is changed. Why ? 

What is the subject of " am" in (h) ? of " art" in (i) ? of 
"are" in (j) ? of "is" in (k) ? Are these verbs really dif- 
ferent forms of one verb ? Why are the changes in form 
made ? 

For what three purposes are verbs changed in form ? 

Verbs are words that assert. However, a verb 
does more than assert an attribute of the subject ; it 
tells the time when the assertion is true. And to tell 
the time, there are changes in the form of the verb. 
Changes for this purpose are indicated by tense. 

Moreover, a verb can indicate that the relation 
between subject and attribute is a fact, is doubtful, 
or even that it is contrary to the fact. And this, too, 
may be done by a change in the form of the verb. 
Changes for this purpose are indicated by mode. 

And third, the form of the verb may be changed 
to indicate a change in the number of the subject. 
If a personal pronoun is the subject, the form may 
be changed to indicate the person of the pronoun 
used and also its number. The form of a verb may 
be changed to agree with its subject in person and 
number. 

The changes in the form of a verb make its 
inflection. A verb is inflected to indicate the time of 



142 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

the assertion, the manner of the assertion, and the 
number and person of its subject. 

The inflection of a verb is called conjugation. 

Conjugation of a verb is the orderly arrangement of all 
its forms. 

Exercise 

II. Fill the blanks with forms of the verb run to 
denote the present time. 

I We 

You You — 

He, she, it, the boy They, the boys 



Fill the blanks below with forms of the verb run 
to denote that the action took place in past time 

I We 

You You 

He, she, it, the girl They, the girls 



How many forms of the verb run denote present time ? 
Which is the common form ? In how many places do you 
find the other form ? Its subject is always what person and 
number? (See Section 86.) With what letter does this 
verb-form end ? 

How many forms do you find to denote past time ? Can 
you think of any other form of the verb run ? How many 
forms are there altogether of this verb ? 

Fill the blanks at the bottom of this page with the 
forms of the verb be which denote present time. 
Then, fill the blanks at the top of the next page with 
forms of the verb be to denote past time. 

I We 

You You 

He, she, it They 



The dog The dogs 



VERBS 143 

We 



You You 

He, she, it They 

The cloud The clouds 

How many forms of the verb be have you used ? 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 238, Sec- 
tion 44. 

Section 80. Verbs and Verb-Phrases 

I. Of all verbs except be there are three forms.* 
Two of these are used to denote present time, and 
one to denote past time. Of the two forms used to 
denote present time, one is the common, or simple, 
form of the verb ; the other is usually called the 
third-person singular form, or the s-form of the 
verb. 

There are, however, many more than three ideas 
to be expressed. To express them, the English lan- 
guage has made use of many verb-phrases. 

(a) This is Washington's birthday. 

(b) To-morrow will be Washington's birthday. 

(c) It has been a holiday for' many years. 

(d) Man has always wished to add something to God's 

work. 

(e) The sun had set in purple glory. 

(f) At the end of April the deep snowbanks will have 

disappeared, and the first stray crocuses will have 
been found by the children. 

(g) A little fire is quickly trodden out. 

^ The solemn forms ending in est and eth are not considered in this 
statement. 



144 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

(h) To keep him from doing harm, he was kept from 

doing anything. 
(i) The stars will be darkened. 
(j) When soldiers have been baptized in the fire of battle, 

they have all one rank in my eyes. 

Analyze sentences (a), (b), and (c). Are the verbs or 
verb-phrases copulative or attributive ? What word names 
the predicate attribute.^ In sentences (d) to (j), are the 
verb-phrases copulative or attributive ? In an attributive 
verb-phrase, which word names the attribute ? What pur- 
pose do the other words of a verb-phrase serve .^ 

What form of the verb is " be" in (b) ? (See Section 77.) 
"been" in (c) ? (See Section 75.) "wished" in (d) ? "set" 
in (e) ? The other words of the phrase help the last word 
to express changes in voice, tense, mode, person, and num- 
ber. They are called auxiliary verbs. ^ 

A verb-phrase is a group of words that asserts. 
An auxiliary verb is one that is used with a verbal to 
form a verb-phrase. 

A verb-phrase has for its last word a verbal, — 
either an infinitive or a participle/ — and from one 
to three auxiliary verbs to express changes in its 
meaning. 

The principal auxiliary verbs are the forms of be, 
have, do, shall, will, and may." As these words are 
used so of ten, it is necessary that their inflections be 
known. They are : — ' 

^ For the meaning of auxiliary, consult a dictionary. Is the word 
well selected to describe this class of verbs ? 

^ Many grammarians consider can, must, ought, and let as auxiliary 
verbs. 



VERBS 



145 



BE 





PRESENT 


PAST 




PERSO^ 


r SINGULAR 


PLURAL PERSON SINGULAR 


PLURAL 


1. 


I am 


We are 1. 


I was 


We were 


2. 


You are 


You are 2. 


You were 


You were 


3. 


He ) 

She [ is 


They are 3. 


He \ 

She > was 


They were 




It ) 


HAVE 


It ) 


* 


1. 


I have 


We have 1. 


I had 


We had 


2. 


You have You have 2. 


You had 


You had 


3. 


He J 


They have 3. 


He ) 


They had 




She Uas 


She } had 






It ) 


DO 


It ) 




1. 


I do 


We do 1. 


I did 


We did 


2. 


You do 


You do 2. 


You did 


You did 


'3. 


He does 


They do 3. 
SHALL 


He did 


They did 








PRESENT PAST 


There is but one form for all persons : — shall should 






WILL 






There is but one form for all persons : — will would 



MAY 

There is but one form for all persons : — may might 

Exercise 
II. In the following paragraph, select the verbs 
and verb-phrases, and classify them. In verb-phrases, 
tell which word names the attribute and which words 
are auxiliary verbs. 

Day dawned at length after the feverish night, and the 
admiral prepared for the assault. Within the fortress, 
reigned a deathlike stillness, which inspired a sickening 



146 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

suspicion. Had the city, indeed, been carried in the night; 
had the massacre already commenced ; had all this labor 
and audacity been expended in vain ? Suddenly a man 
was descried wading breast-high through the water from 
Lammen toward the fleet, while, at the same time, one 
solitary boy was seen to wave his cap from the summit of 
the fort. After a moment of doubt, the happy mystery was 
solved. The Spaniards had fled, panic-stricken, during the 
darkness. Their position would still have enabled them, 
with firmness, to frustrate the enterprise of the patriots ; 
but the hand of God, which had sent the ocean and the 
tempest to the deliverance of Leyden, had struck her ene- 
mies with terror likewise. 

Motley, from The Rise of the Dutch Republic. 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 240, Sec- 
tion 45. 

Section 81. Tense 

I. (a) The winter season is joyful. 

(b) The winter season was joyful. 

(c) The winter season will be joyful. 

(d) The daisies peep from ev'ry field. 

(e) The daisies peeped from ev'ry field. 

(f) The daisies will peep from ev'ry field. 
Analyze sentences (a), (b), and (c). What elements of 

these sentences remain unchanged ? What element has 
been changed ? For what purpose has it been changed ? 

Analyze sentences (d), (e), and (f). For what purpose 
do we have the three forms, "peep," "peeped," and "will 
peep " ? 

Verbs may be changed to show the time of the 
assertion. This change, or modification, of a verb to 
indicate the time of the assertion is called tense. 



VERBS 147 

Corresponding to the three divisions of time, there 
are three tenses : the present tense, the past tense, and 
the future tense. 

The present tense includes the forms of a verb that indi- 
cate present time. 

The past tense includes the forms of a verb that indicate 
past time. 

The future tense includes the forms of a verb that indicate 
future time. 

(a) Now the bluebird comes. 

(b) Now the bluebird has come. 

(c) Yesterday the bluebird came. 

(d) Yesterday the bluebird had come. 

(e) To-morrow the bluebird will come. 

(f) To-morrow the bluebird will have come. 

What does the word "Now" indicate in both (a) and 
(b) ? The time is the same in both, then ; and it is present. 
What does (b) tell that is different from what is told in (a) ? 
Answer similar questions about sentences (c) and (d) ; 
about (e) and (f). 

Any verb may be changed to indicate that the 
action asserted has been completed, or will be com- 
pleted. 

The present perfect tense includes those forms of a verb 
that indicate action completed at the present time. 

The past perfect tense includes those forms of a verb that 
indicate action completed at some past time. 

The future perfect tense includes those forms of a verb 
that indicate action to be completed at some future time. 

Exercise 
II. In one column, write six sentences containing 
the six tenses of the verb invent in the active voice. 



148 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

In another column, write six sentences containing 
the six tenses of the verb invent in the passive voice. 

Looking at the verb-phrases in these sentences, tell what 
auxiliaries are used in the future in both active and pas- 
sive ? What auxiliary is used in the present perfect in both 
active and passive ? in the past perfect ? What words are 
used in the future perfect ? Those words that are always 
used to indicate the tenses of verbs are often called the 
signs of the tenses. 

What is the sign of the future ? the present perfect ? the 
past perfect? the future perfect? 

Exercise 

III. Make six sentences by joining the following 
subject and predicate attribute by the six tenses of 
the verb be. 

In union strength. 

Compare this list of sentences with the list called 
for in Exercise II above. 

Do you see any relation between these forms of the verb 
be and the auxiliaries of the passive voice ? Can you make 
a rule for forming the passive voice ? 

Write out in the six tenses, the passive forms of 
discover; of defeat; of ruin. Use som_e form of the 
third personal pronoun as the subject. 

Exercise 

IV. Analyze the sentences in the paragraph quoted 
from Longfellow, on page 227. Do not take the 
time to analyze the phrases, unless there is some- 
thing peculiar about them. Classify the verbs and 
verb-phrases as copulative or attributive, transitive 
or intransitive. Give the voice and tense of each. 



VERBS 149 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 240, Sec- 
tion 46. 

Section 82. Progressive Verb-Plirases 

I. Insert two or more auxiliary verbs in each of the 
blanks below to make complete verb-phrases with 
doing. Each of the completed verb-phrases should 
indicate action going on. 

These are called progressive verb-phrases. 

Present He is 

Past • He was 

Future He 

Present Perfect He 

Past Perfect He 

Future Perfect He 



> doing his duty 



What part of the verb-phrase is unchanged in all these 
sentences ? What part is changed ? What one difference 
is there between these verb-phrases and passive verb- 
phrases ? 

A progressive verb-phrase is one that denotes that the 
action is continuing. 

Exercise 

n. Give the progressive verb-phrases used in the 
six tenses of the verb go; wander. 

83. Emphatic Verb-phrases 

I. (a) Henry tells the truth. 

(b) Henry does tell the truth. 

(c) Arnold betrayed his country. 

(d) Arnold did betray his country. 

(e) Did Gutenberg invent the printing-press ? 



150 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

(f) He did. 

(g) Gutenberg did not print a daily newspaper. 

How are emphatic verb-phrases formed ? In what tenses 
are they used ? For what purpose ? 

The emphatic verb-phrase is formed by combining 
the infinitive form of a verb with the verbs do, does, 
did. It is used in but two tenses, the present and 
the past, to make an emphatic assertion, or to ask 
questions about the assertion made by the verb. 
Exercise 

II. Fill the blanks with the ordinary conjugation 
of the verb run, carrying it through the six tenses. 

SINGULAR PLURAL 

I We 

You You 



He They 

Give the emphatic conjugation of the verb slide. 
How many tenses should you give ? 

Give the progressive conjugation of the verb 
learn. How many tenses can you give ? Can it be 
conjugated in the passive voice? If so, give it. 
Give the progressive conjugation of the verb read. 
Write out the emphatic conjugation of the verb 
answer. What tenses should you give ? Change it to 
an interrogative conjugation. 

Composition 
For the lesson in Composition, see page 240, Sec- 
tion 47. 

Section 84. Mode 

So far, in the study of verbs, we have considered 
only those forms used in treating facts. Now we 



VERBS 151 

come to a few forms found in sentences making 
doubtful statements, statements contrary to fact, or 
statements of things only thought of. 

(a) The Lord is gracious, (b) The Lord be gracious! 
(c) The fates are favorable, (d) The fates be favorable ! 
(e) I was young. (f) Oh, that I were young! 

(g) Thou wast young. (h) Oh, that thou wert young! 

(i) He was young. (j) Oh, that he were young! 

(k) My father was young. (1) Oh, that my father were 

young! 
(m) We were young. (n) Oh, that we were young! 

(o) You were young. (p) Oh, that you were young! 

(q) They were young. (r) Oh, that they were young! 

(s) The king lives long. (t) Long live the king! 
(u) The people live long, (v) Long live the people. 

In one column, the sentences assert facts ; in the other, 
they state things only as thought of or wished for. 

(w) The woodman spares (y) Woodman, spare that tree! 
that tree. (x) You spare that tree! 

What kind of sentence is (x) .? Is " Woodman" the sub- 
ject of (x) .^ (See Section 37.) If "you" (understood) is 
the subject of the verb in (x), is there any change of form 
to express a command ? 

From these sentences, we learn that there are three 
ways in which a verb asserts: as a fact, as a thing 
thought of, and as a command. 

Mode is the change in the form of a verb to denote 
changes in the manner of the assertion. 

The indicative mode includes those forms of a verb that 
assert a fact. 

The subjunctive mode includes those forms of a verb that 
assert something as merely thought of. 



152 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

The imperative mode includes those forms of a verb that 
express a command or an entreaty.^ 

Section 85. Forms and Uses of Subjunctive 

I. The subjunctive mode has almost disappeared 
from the English language. There are but three of 
its forms commonly used or seen; and of these but 
one, were, is heard in common conversation. 

The three forms are : — 

1. be; as, If he be young and work hard, he 

will succeed. 

2. were; as, Though he were young, he would 

fail ; or. Were I stronger, I would under- 
take it. 

3. the common form of the verb when used 

with a singular subject ; as. If he speak, 
he will betray me. 
In addition to these simple verbs, there are a few 
verb-phrases used in the subjunctive. They are : — 

1. verb-phrases with would and should ; as. Should 

he go, I will go. 

2. verb-phrases with may and might, in purpose 

clauses and sentences denoting a wish ; as. 
Oh, that I might help him ! 

Would, should, may, might, and had are not always 
parts of subjunctive verb-phrases. They are at times 
full verbs. (See Sections 88 and 89 for these verbs.) 

^ Strictly speaking, there is no imperative mode. The same form 
of the verb is used to express a command as to express a fact. Its 
characteristic is that it has no expressed subject. However, impera- 
tive has been considered a mode so long that it is given here with 
the others. 



VEKBS 153 

Exercise 
II. Analyze the sentences. Classify the verbs, and 
give the voice, tense, and mode of each. 

1. God save the king. 

2. Come! be we bold! 

3. Where is the place of understanding? 

4. Oh, had I the wings of a dove! 

5. Charge for the guns ! 

6. He wishes to go home. 

7. I'll fight till from my bones the flesh be hack'd. 

8. If you have great talents, industry will improve 

them ; if you have but moderate abilities, industry 
will supply their deficiencies. 

9. If any one attempts to haul down the American flag, 

shoot him on the spot. 

10. Because right is right, to follow right 
Were wisdom in the scorn of consequence. 

11. Though he slay me, yet will I praise him. 

12. If you will not hear Reason, she will surely rap your 

knuckles. 

13. Shall I give up the friend I have valued and tried, 
If he kneel not before the same altar with me ? 

14. If there is anything that will endure 
The eye of God, because it still is pure, 
It is the spirit of a little child. 

15. If there be a human tear 

From Passion's dross refin'd and clear, 
'T is that which pious fathers shed 
Upon a duteous daughter's head. 

16. Our Fathers' God, to Thee, 
Author of liberty, 

To Thee we sing. 
Long may our land be bright 
With Freedom's holy light; 



154 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

Protect us by thy might, 
Great God, our King! 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 241, Sec- 
tion 48. 

Section 86. Agreement of Verb with Subject 

Use in sentences the pronouns I, he, we, you, they, 
as subjects of the verb take in the present tense. Do 
this in all the other tenses of the active voice, indi- 
cative mode. 

Examine the forms, and answer these questions: How 
many forms of the verb are found in the present tense? 
Can you use the common form in the third person singu- 
lar ? Can you use the s-form in the first person singular ? 
How many forms in the past tense ? How many forms in 
the future ? With what personal pronoun is shall used to 
denote future time ? Is it used in both singular and plural 
numbers? In the present perfect tense, where is the 
s-form of the auxiliary found ? Does this correspond with 
its use in the present tense ? How many forms of the verb 
in the past perfect tense ? Is the use of shall and will the 
same in the future perfect tense as in the future tense ? 

Long custom has established that certain forms 
of the verb shall be used with certain pronouns. 
Using subject and verb together as custom has de- 
cided is termed " making the verb agree with its 
subject." 

A verb must agree with its subject in person and number. 

From the study of the forms of the verb take and 
of other verbs^ we learn that : — 



VERBS 155 

1. In the present tense, the s-form of the verb is 

used with the singular of the third personal 
pronoun, and with the singular of all nouns. 

2. In the present perfect tense, the s-form of the 

auxiliary (has) is used with the third person 
singular of pronouns, and with singular 
nouns. 

3. In either the past or the past perfect tense, there 

is but one form of the verb, and there is no 
chance for error in agreement. 

4. In the future and the future perfect tenses, the 

auxiliary verb shall is used with the sin- 
gular and plural forms of the first personal 
pronoun ; the auxiliary verb will is used with 
the second and third personal pronouns and 
all nouns. (For the use of shall and will as 
full verbs, see Section 87.) 

Useful Rules 

1. If the subject of a verb is a collective noun, 
the verb should be singular when the units are con- 
sidered as composing one group ; plural, when the 
units are thought of singly. Example : An army is 
coming. An army of tramps are straggling into 
town. 

2. Two singular nouns connected by and, making 
a compound subject, must be followed by a verb in 
the plural. Example : A strong wind and a full sail 
bring joy to the sailor. 

3. Sometimes two objects are considered together 
as one. In such a case, the verb agrees with the com- 



156 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

plete idea named by both words, and is in the singu- 
lar. Example : Bread is the staff of life ; but bread 
and butter is a gold-headed cane. 

4. Two singular nouns connected by or or nor, 
making a compound subject, are followed by a singu- 
lar verb. Example: A violet or a rose is my favorite 
wild flower. 

5. When a singular subject is modified by a 
phrase denoting addition, generally introduced by 
with, together with, as well as, the verb is in the singular. 
Example : The bat together with the balls was stolen. 

6. After each, every, either, neither, one, etc.^ the 
verb should be singular. Example: Everyone of the 
men works steadily. 

7. Since conjunctive pronouns are not inflected 
for number, the antecedent tells the number of the 
pronoun. A verb whose subject is a conjunctive pro- 
noun agrees with the antecedent in number and per- 
son. Example : One of the best books that have been 
published recently is " Little Rivers." 

8. The title of a book requires a singular verb, 
though it is plural in form. Example: "The Vir- 
ginians " is a good story. 

9. When the subject of a verb is two pronouns of 
different persons connected by or, usage differs. It 
sounds better to say "Either he or I is going," and 
" You or I are going." Politeness seems to call for 
the retirement of self, and to give the government 
of the verb to the pronouns of the second and third 
persons. 



VERBS 157 

Section 87. Use of Shall and Will 

I. Some verbs, at times used as auxiliaries, at other 
times are full attributive verbs. Among these are 
shall, will, should, would, have, had, may, and might. 
With these, we shall also consider the common verbs 
can, could, ought, and let. This section will discuss shall 
and will. 

(a) I wish help. 

(b) I wish to go. 

(c) I will your destruction. 

(d) I will stand here, and no one can hinder me. 

(e) I will go with you. 

(f) "Mary, you must not go." "I will go." 

(g) You shall do it. 

(h) Jennie shall go to the store. 

(i) Shall I go ? You shall. (Compulsion.) 

(j) Shall you go .^ I shall. (Futurity.) 

(k) Will you go? I will. (Promise.) 

(1) Shall he go ? He shall. (Compulsion.) 

(m) Will he go.? He will. (Futurity.) 

What is the object of "wish" in (a) ? of "wish" in (b) ? 
What is the object of "will" in (c) ? of "will" in (d) ? Do 
you see that in (d), as in (c), the willing is the thing that is 
asserted ? In (d), just as in (c), "will" is a full attributive 
verb. The object is the infinitive "stand." (See Section 
77.) Is the tense the same in (d) as in (c) ? What tense is 
" will " in (c) ? (See Section 80.) When " will " is a full verb, 
in what tense is it always ? 

Is simple futurity expressed by "will" in (i)? or is it 
something more? What is expressed by "shall" in (g) ? 
in (h) ? In (g) and (h) is "shall" a full verb or an 
auxiliary? What is the object of "shall" in each of the 
sentences? What two attributes may be expressed by 



158 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

" shall " ? When " shall " is a full verb, in what tense is it ? 
(See Section 80.) 

In (i) to (m), tell which words in both questions and 
answers are full verbs and which are auxiliaries. Notice, 
too, that the answer uses the same verb as is used in the 
question. 

Shall and will have two uses : as full verbs and as 
auxiliaries. When full verbs, they are nearly always 
completed by infinitives as object complements ; 
(See Section 77.) and they are in the present tense. 

As an auxiliary verb, shall is used in declarative 
sentences with a first person subject to denote 
futurity. 

As a full verb, shall is used in declarative sen- 
tences with a subject in the second or third person 
to express compulsion. 

As an auxiliary, will is used in declarative sentences 
with the second or third person to denote futurity. 

As a full verb, will is used to express (1) determi- 
nation or (2) promise, when the subject is in the first 
person. 

In asking questions, the same verb will or shall 
should be used as is expected in the answer. If the 
answer is to be a full verb, use the same full verb in 
the question ; if the answer is to be an auxiliary 
denoting simple futurity, use the same auxiliary in 
the question. See sentences (i) to (m). 

Exercise 
XL Write sentences in which shall is used to ex- 
press a simple future ; compulsion. 



VERBS 159 

Form questions in which will is used to express a 
simple future ; a promise ; determination. 

Exercise 
III. Tell whether the verbs shall or will in the 
sentences below are attributive or auxiliary, and give 
the meaning of each. Also give the tense of the 
verbs and the object complement of each. 

1. I shall be a man. 

2. I will be a man. 

3. It shall be as you say. 

4. It will be as you say. 

5. Shall George Washington hold the first place in the 

Hall of Fame ? 

6. Will George Washington hold the first place in the 

Hall of Fame ? 

7. Shall we study pictures ? 

8. When will the leopard change his spots ? 

9. Shall the United States be free and independent ? 

10. Cuba shall be free. 

11. Shall you go.^ I shall. 

12. Will you go.^ I will. 

13- When shall we three meet again? 
14. He shall know what we think of his behavior in this 
matter. 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 242, Sec- 
tion 49. 

Section 88. Use of Should and Would 

I. (a) We should do the gracious thing. 

(b) You should go ; find the time. 

(c) They should treat him with respect, if they cannot 

honor him. 



160 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

(d) He wishes to do right, but at times it seems im- 

possible. 

(e) He would do right, but at times it seems impos- 

sible. 

(f) I would not go even if I could. 

(g) He would wander all day by the side of some clear 

stream. 

In (a), (b), and (c), "should" is a full verb. What does 
it mean ? Does it make any difference whether the subject 
is first, second, or third person ? What tense is the verb ? 
(See Section 80.) What time does it denote, — present, 
or future, or both ? 

Does the meaning of (d) and (e) seem to you the same ? 
What is the object of "wishes" in (d) ? of "would" in (e) ? 
What does "would " mean in (e) and (f) ? Is "would" a 
full verb "^ What tense is it ? What time does it denote ? 

In (g), "would" means " was accustomed to." What is 
the object of the verb ? 

Should and would are the past tense forms of shall 
and will. As full verbs, they denote either present 
or future time. 

When they are used as auxiliaries, they usually 
follow the rules given for shall and will as auxiliaries. 

Should is sometimes a full verb denoting duty or 
compulsion. 

Would is sometimes a full verb, denoting (1) desire 
or intention, and (2) a customary action. 
Exercise 

II. Tell what the verbs mean in the following sen- 
tences. 

1. He should go. 

2. He would go. 

3. I knew he should go. 



VERBS 161 

4. I should not like to leave them. 

5. Should you go ? 

6. You should take care of yourself. 

7. They would pay their bills, but they cannot. 

8. They should pay their bills, but they will not. 

9. Samuel Johnson would touch every post in the fence 

as he walked along the street. 

10. Why should the spirit of mortal be proud 'i 

11. Whatsoever things ye would that men should do 

unto you, do ye even so unto them. 

Section 89. Use of May and Have 

I. (a) We may play. 

(b) They may take their games with them. 

(c) The earth may fall into the sun. 

(d) He said that the earth might fall into the sun. 

(e) They have truth on their side. 

(f) Wickedness has to yield. 

(g) They had to hasten. 

In (a), what is asserted, — permission or playing.'* 
Does " may" in (b) assert permission .-* Does " may" in (a) 
and (b) seem to you a full verb "^ What does it denote .'^ 
When may or might denotes permission, its object, an 
infinitive, names that which is permitted. 

In (c), does "may" assert the possibility of the earth 
falling? What is the object of "may" in (c) ? Show that 
possibility is asserted by "might" in (d). Are they full 
verbs or auxiliaries .^ 

In (e), (f), and (g), are the verbs full verbs .^ 

May and might are auxiliary verbs in subjunctive 
verb-phrases when they denote a wish or a purpose. 
They are full attributive verbs when they denote 
permission or possibility. They are then completed by 
infinitives without the word to. (See Section 77.) 



162 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

Have and had are often auxiliary verbs, making 
part of verb-phrases. They may also be full verbs 
denoting to hold in possession ; in this case, the ob- 
ject is usually a noun. Or they may be full verbs, 
denoting necessity. In this case, the object is an in- 
finitive. 

Exercise 

II. Analyze the following sentences, and tell 
whether the verbs may, might, have, and had are full 
or auxiliary verbs. 

1. Princes and lords may flourish or may fade. 

2. May there be no ill-will between us. 

3. I do entreat that we may sup together. 
4- She was as fair as fair might be. 

5. You might do it if you chose. 

6. The lark has to sing ; he has a joyful heart. 

7. Where has he learned his simple melody.^ 

8. The boy whistles that he may not be afraid. 

9. I have seen more days than thou. 
10. Many a word at random spoken 

May soothe, or wound, a heart that's broken. 

Section 90. Use of Can, Could, Must, Ought, 
Let 

(a) Who can be president of the United States ? 

(b) Aaron Burr could not succeed. 

(c) Whoever succeeds must work. 

(d) These things ought ye to have done. 

(e) Let us join in singing the national anthem. 

(f) Let him beware lest he fall. 

(g) Let me go a free man. ♦ 
Study the uses of these common verbs as you have of 

those preceding, and determine whether they are full or 
auxiliary verbs. If full verbs, what is their object ? What 



Vf:RBS 163 

difference do you notice about the object of "ought" in 
(d) ? Sentences (e), (f), and (g) are imperative. What per- 
sonal pronoun is always the subject of a verb in the im- 
perative mode ? Then if one wished to give a command to 
himself or to some third person, he must adopt the method 
in (e), (f), and (g). "Let" is in the imperative mode: its 
subject is "you" understood. What is to be "let," or 
allowed, in (e) ? What, then, is the object of "Let".^ 
(See Section 77.) 

Can and could are attributive verbs denoting 
power or ability. They are completed by an infinitive 
without the word to. Must is a full attributive verb 
denoting duty or necessity. It is completed by an in- 
finitive without the word to. 

Ought is an attributive verb denoting duty or ne- 
cessity. It is completed by an infinitive w4th the 
w^ord to. 

Let has an idiomatic use in our language. There 
is no imperative in the first and third persons. By 
the use of let and an infinitive, we have made a sub- 
stitute for these omitted imperatives. (See Section 

97.) 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 242, Sec- 
tion 50. 

Section 91. Tenses of these Verbs 

I. Write out the conjugation of will; shall; may; 
can ; must ; and ought. How many forms has each ? 
How many tenses? 

(a) He shall be put to shame now. 

(b) He shall be put to shame to-morrow. 



164 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

(c) He should be present now. 

(d) He should be present to-morrow. 

In (a) and (b), what tense-form is used? What time is 
denoted in (a) ? in (b) ? In (c) and (d), what tense-form is 
used? May the verb "should" denote present time? past 
time ? Is definite time denoted by " shall " and " should " ? 

Frame easy sentences using will and would. Question 
yourselves to learn whether these verbs denote definite time. 

Do the same with can, may, must, ought, could, would, 
might. 

Do the tenses of these common verbs denote as definite 
time as the tenses of other verbs ? 

The verbs will shall, would, should, can, could, must, 
ought, when used as attributive verbs, have a few 
tense-forms, but these forms do not indicate definite 
notions of time. The present form denotes either 
present or future time ; while the past form, as seen 
in should, would, could, and might, may denote present 
or future time. 

In parsing these verbs, name the tense-form, and 
state the time which is denoted in the sentence. 

Exercise 
II. In Section 87, Exercise III, and in Section 88, 
Exercise II, parse the verbs and verb-phrases accord- 
ing to the models. 

Models 

(Section 87, sentence 1.) " Shall be" is a copulative verb- 
phrase. It is in the indicative mode, future tense, first per- 
son, singular number, agreeing with its subject " I. " 

(Section 87, sentence 2.) "Will" is a transitive verb. 
It is in the active voice, indicative mode, present tense, 



VERBS 165 

denoting either present or future time, first person, singu- 
lar number, agreeing with its subject " I. " 

(Section 88, sentence 1.) "Should" is a transitive verb. 
It is in the active voice, indicative mode, past tense, denot- 
ing present or future time, third person, singular number, 
agreeing with its subject "He." 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 244, Sec- 
tion 51. 

Section 92. Principal Parts of Verbs 

The present infinitive, the past tense, and the past 
participle are called the principal parts of a verb. 
This is because with these three forms all the other 
forms of a verb may be made. 

Write in three columns the principal parts of 
the following verbs : rain, separate, paint, accustom, 
collect, carry, compose, build. 

Point out the ways in which the past indicative differs 
from the present infinitive. How does the past participle 
differ from the present infinitive ? What letters are added 
to the present infinitive to form the past indicative and the 
past participle ? 

Write in columns the principal parts of the follow- 
ing verbs: know, ring, freeze, bite, spin, find, drink, 
write, beat. 

Tell all the ways in which you have formed the 
past tense and past participle of these verbs. 

Most verbs form their past tense and past parti- 
ciple by adding ed, d, or t to the present infinitive 
form, often making another syllable. Such verbs are 
called regular verbs. 



166 



GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 



There are a few verbs that are irregular in the 
formation of their parts. Below is a list of the com- 
mon irregular verbs. 

Principal Parts of Irregular Verbs 



NT INFINITIVE 


PAST INDICATIVE 


PAST PARTICIPLE 


abide 


abode 


abode 


be 


was 


been 


bear 


bore 


borne 


beat 


beat 


beaten 


begin 


began 


begun 


bid 


bade 


bade 


bite 


bit 


bitten 


blow 


blew 


blown 


break 


broke 


broken 


bring 


brought 


brought 


build 


built 


built 


burst 


burst 


burst 


buy 


bought 


bought 


catch 


caught 


caught 


choose 


chose 


chosen 


cling 


clung 


clung 


come 


came 


come 


cost 


cost 


cost 


deal 


dealt 


dealt 


do 


did 


done 


draw 


drew 


drawn 


drink 


drank 


drunk 


drive 


drove 


driven 


eat 


ate 


eaten 


fall 


fell 


fallen 


fight 


fought 


fought 


find 


found 


found 


fly 


flew 


flown 


forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 



VERBS 



167 



PRESENT INFINITIVE 

freeze 

get 

give 

go 

grow 

hide 

khow 

lay 

lead 

leave 

Ue 

ride 

ring 

rise 

run 

see 

seek 

sell 

set 

shake 

sing 

sink 

sit 

slay 

spring 

steal 

swear 

swim 

swing 

take 

teach 

tear 

throw 

wake 



•AST INDICATIVE 


PAST PARTICIPLE 


froze 


frozen 


got 


got 


gave 


given 


went 


gone 


grew 


grown 


hid 


hidden 


knew 


known 


laid 


laid 


led 


led 


left 


left 


lay 


lain 


rode 


ridden 


rang 


rung 


rose 


risen 


ran 


run 


saw 


seen 


sought 


sought 


sold 


sold 


set 


set 


shook 


shaken 


sang 


sung 


sank 


sunk 


sat 


sat 


slew 


slain 


sprang 


sprung 


stole 


stolen 


swore 


sworn 


swam 


swum 


swung 


swung 


took 


taken 


taught 


taught 


tore 


torn 


threw 


thrown 


waked, woke 


waked, woke 



168 



GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 



PRESENT INFINITIVE 


PAST INDICATIVE 


PAST PARTICIPLE 


wear 


wore 


worn 


wind 


wound 


wound 


write 


wrote 


written 



Section 93. Conjugation of the Verb Be 

I. Principal Parts. Present, be ; past, was ; past 
participle, been. 

Indicative Mode 







PRESENT TENSE 




1. 


I am 




We are 


2. 


(Thou art) 




You are 


3. 


He is 


PAST TENSE 


They are 


1. 


I was 




We were 


2. 


(Thou wast) 




You were 


3 


He was 


FUTURE TENSE 


They were 


1. 


I shall be 




We shall be 


2. 


(Thou wilt be) 


You will be 


3. 


He will be 




They will be 



PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 

1. I have been We have been 

2. (Thou hast been) You have been 

3. He has been They have been 



PAST PERFECT TENSE 



1. I had been 

2. (Thou hadst been) 

3. He had been 



We had been 
You had been 
They had been 



FUTURE PERFECT TENSE 

1. I shall have been We shall have been 

2. (Thou wilt have been) You will have been 

3. He will have been They will have been 



VERBS 



169 



Subjunctive Mode 





PRESENT TENSE 


1. 

3. 


(If) I be (If) we be 
((If) thou be) (If) you be 
(If) he be (If) they be 




PAST TENSE 


1 

2. 

3. 


(If) I were 
((If) thou wert) 
(If) he were 


1. 
2. 


PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 





3. (If) he have been 



Imperative Mode 



1. 



2. Be (thou) 


Participles 


Be (ye) 


Present 


being 




Past 


been 




Perfect 


having been 
Infinitives 




Presen : 


(to) be, or being, 




Perfect 


(to) have been, or 


having been 



Exercise 

II. Give the verb be in the third person, singular, 
through all the modes and tenses. Do the same in 
the first person, plural. 

The regular arrangement of the forms of a verb 
in one person and number through the different 
modes and tenses is called a synopsis. 



170 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

Section 94. Conjugation of the Verb Hide 

I. Principal Parts. Present, hide; past, hid; 
past participle, hidden. 

Active Voice. Indicative Mode 







PRESENT TENSE 


1. 

2. 
3. 


I hide 

(Thou hidest) 
He hides 


We hide 
You hide 
They hide 

PAST TENSE 


1. 

2. 
3. 


I hid 

(Thou hiddest) 

He hid 


We hid 
You hid 
They hid 



FUTURE TENSE 

1. I shall hide We shall hide 

2. (Thou wilt hide) You will hide 

3. He will hide They will hide 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 

1. I have hidden We have hidden 

2. (Thou hast hidden) You have hidden 

3. He has hidden They have hidden 

PAST PERFECT TENSE 

1. I had hidden We had hidden 

2. (Thou hadst hidden) You had hidden 

3. He had hidden They had hidden 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE 

1. I shall have hidden We shall have hidden 

2. (Thou wilt have hidden) You will have hidden 

3. He will have hidden They will have hidden 



VERBS 171 

Subjunctive Mode 

PRESENT TENSE 
1. 

2. 

3. (If) he hide 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 
1. 

2. 

3. (If) he have hidden 

(For the subjunctive verb-phrases with may and might, 
should and would, see Sections 88 and 89.) 

Imperative Mode 
1. 

2. Hide (thou) Hide (you or ye) 

3. 

Participles 
Present hiding 

Perfect having hidden 

Perfect Progressive having been hiding 

Infinitives 
Present (to) hide, or hiding 

Present Progressive (to) be hiding 
Perfect (to) have hidden, or having hid- 

den 
Perfect Progressive (to) have been hiding, or having 

been hiding 

Passive Voice. Indicative Mode 

PRESENT TENSE 

1. I am hidden We are hidden 

2. (Thou art hidden) You are hidden 

3. He is hidden They are hidden 



172 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

PAST TENSE 

1. I was hidden We were hidden 

2. *(Thou wert hidden) You were hidden 

3. He was hidden They were hidden 

FUTURE TENSE 

1. I shall be hidden We shall be hidden 

2. (Thou wilt be hidden) You will be hidden 

3. He will be hidden They will be hidden 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 

1. I have been hidden We have been hidden 

2. (Thou hast been hidden) You have been hidden 

3. He has been hidden They have been hidden 

PAST PERFECT TENSE 

1. I had been hidden We had been hidden 

. 2. (Thou hadst been hidden) You had been hidden 
3. He had been hidden They had been hidden 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE 

1. I shall have been hidden We shall have been hidden 

2. (Thou wilt have been You will have been hidden 

hidden) 

3. He will have been hidden They will have be'en hidden 

Subjunctive Mode 
present tense 

1. (If) I be hidden (If) we be hidden 

2. ((If) thou be hidden) (If) you be hidden 

3. (If) he be hidden (If) they be hidden 

PAST TENSE 

1. (If) I were hidden 

2. ((If) thou wert hidden) 

3. (If) he were hidden 



VERBS 173 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 

/ 

2. f 

3. (If) he have been hidden 

Imperative Mode 
1. 

2. Be (thou) hidden Be (ye) hidden 

3. 

Participles 
Present being hidden 

Past hidden 

Perfect having been hidden 

Infinitives 
Present (to) be hidden, or being 

hidden 
Perfect (to) have been hidden, or 

having been hidden 

Exercise 
II. Write the progressive conjugation of the verb 
hide in such tenses as it may be used. 

Write a synopsis of the verb hide in the third 
person singular, indicative mode, both active and 
passive voices. 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 245, Sec- 
tion 52. 

Section 95. Constructions of Participles 

I. (a) Landing at Boston, let the traveler push north- 
ward and cross the River Saco. 
(b) Here were the Abenakis, found along the Ken- 
nebec and other rivers. 



174 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

(c) When the medicine-man had finished his wild 

song, the band of warriors departed. 

(d) The medicine-man having finished his wild song, 

the band of warriors departed. 

(e) Considering the facts, he received scant justice. 

(f ) Generally speaking, we receive what we deserve. 

Participles are verbal adjectives, and they have 
the most common constructions of adjectives, as 
modifiers of nouns and pronouns. These sentences 
show two new constructions. 

Is the idea expressed in the phrase in (d) the same as that 
expressed by the clause in (c) ? Is there a word to connect 
the phrase, "The medicine-man having finished his wild 
song," to the rest of the sentence ? How, then, is the parti- 
cipial phrase used in (d) ? 

Does "considering" modify any word in (e) .'^ Does 
"speaking" modify any word in (f) ? Then, in what con- 
struction are these principles? 

Participles are commonly used in the following 
constructions : — 

1. as a direct modifier of a noun or pronoun ; 

2. with a noun or pronoun making an inde- 

pendent element of a sentence ; 

3. independently. 

A noun or pronoun modified by a participle is 
often an absolute or independent member of a sen- 
tence ; as in (d). The participle itself is in the or- 
dinary construction (see 1 above). The noun or 
pronoun is in the nominative case ; and for this 
reason the whole construction is often called the 
nominative independent, or nominative absolute. (This 



VERBS 175 

construction of a noun should be added to the 
others in the nominative case given in Section 56.) 

A participle without a noun or pronoun is some- 
times used independently. It may then be modified 
as any other participle ; as in (e) and in (f). 
Exercise 

II. Select and classify the participles in the fol- 
lowing^ sentences. 

1. A penny saved is a penny earned. 

2. The green valley, stretching far below, is white with 

blossoming cherry trees. 

3. God is a shower to the heart burned up with grief. 

4. They glided calmly down the tranquil stream, by 

islands choked with trees and matted with entan- 
gled vines. 

5. Before them a wide and rapid current coursed 

athwart their way, by the foot of lofty heights 
wrapped thick in forests. 

6. Having gained truth, keep truth. 

7- Sooth'd with the sound, the king grew vain. 

8. The road stretches away northward, keeping at 
some distance from the Tiber. 

Q. One feels the heart-throb of the brave knight who 
goes forth all harnessed in the early dawn, dread 
ing the unknown and yet overflowing with joy, for 
he knows that the day will be consecrated to love 
and to the right. 
10. So Francis went on his way, deeply inhaling the 
odors of spring, singing at the top of his voice one 
of those songs of French chivalry which he had 
learned in days gone by. Some ruffians, aroused 
by his voice, suddenly fell ypon him. "Who are 
you y they asked. " I am the herald of the great 
King," he answered ; "but what is that to you .^" 



176 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 248, Sec- 
tion 53. 

Section 96. Infinitives in Prepositional Plirases 

I. (a) The priests were engaged in singing vespers. 

(b) Lincoln found many problems to solve. 

(c) He studied to understand the difficulties. 

(d) He was able to act wisely. 

(e) What can they do but retreat ? 

"In singing vespers," sentence (a), is a prepositional 
phrase. (Section 26.) "In" is the preposition, and "sing- 
ing," an infinitive, is the principal word of the phrase. 
What is the object of the infinitive ? 

In (b), what does the phrase " to solve " modify ? Is the 
phrase " to solve" equivalent to the phrase "for solving" ? 
What is "solving" in the latter phrase.^ "Solve" in the 
former has the same construction. It is a simple infinitive 
need as the principal word in a prepositional phrase. 

In (c), what does the prepositional phrase "to under- 
stand" modify .f^ What phrase can you substitute for this 
phrase, as you did in (b) ? This phrase is an adverbial 
modifier expressing the purpose of the verb it modifies, 
" studied. " This is the common way of expressing purpose 
in modern English. "He ran to catch the train"; "We 
worked to get it ready" ; " He whistled to keep his courage 
up," — all these show examples of an infinitive used as the 
principal word of a prepositional phrase expressing 
purpose. 

In (d), what does the phrase "to act" modify? What 
part of speech is " able " ? What kind of phrase is " to act," 
then ? What is the principal word of this phrase ? 

"But" with the nfeaning of "except" is a preposition. 
What, then, is "but retreat"? What is "retreat"? 



VERBS 177 

From a study of the sentences above we learn that 
an infinitive may be the principal word in a prepo- 
sitional phrase. Such a prepositional phrase may 
modify a noun, an adjective, or a verb. 

When an infinitive is the principal word of a 
prepositional phrase, the word to has its ordinary use 
as a preposition. It is not the sign of an infinitive. 
Exercise 

II. Analyze the sentences according to the models 
already given. Be especially careful in watching for 
infinitives. Remember that they take the same com- 
plements as a verb, and that they may be modified 
by words or phrases the same as verbs. 

1. It is impossible to think of a farmhouse without a 

boy in it. 

2. I do not know why boys like to hunt and kill animals. 

3. Some of the most delightful hours of my life have 

been spent in watching the hole of a big wood- 
chuck. 

4. Every boy desires to live by hunting and fishing. 

5. The boys divided into two camps at school ; one was 

"Indians," and the other was "regulars." 

6. The "Indians" usually had the worst of it; they 

were not only killed by the "regulars," but they 
were whipped by the home-guard at night for 
staining themselves and their clothes with the 
elderberry. 

7. To kill people with arrows is barbarous ; to kill 

them with smooth-bores and flint lock muskets is 
semi-civilized ; to kill them with breech-loading 
rifles is civilized. 

8. Putnam had no difficulty in enlisting a company of 

young men for the war. 



178 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

9. Giving them orders, he rode on without dismounting, 
and reached Boston the next morning. 
10. To depart from evil is understanding. 

Exercise 
III. The following sentences contain participles and 
infinitives. Select them and tell their use in the sen- 
tences. 

1. The miracle plays were written to teach the people 

the stories of the Bible. 

2. The priests acted out the story of the building of the 

ark. 

3. They drove about the city in great two-story wagons, 

stopping at certain places to act the play. 

4. The actors did everything to make the plays real to 

the people. 

5. In these plays, Satan wore a hideous suit of leather 

covered with black hair and feathers. 

6. The silver, snarling trumpets began to chide. 

7. Some chains we have no skill to break. 

8. George III, by trying to curb the growing liberties 

of the American colonies, forfeited forever the 
brightest jewel in the British crown. 

9. The first step to greatness is to be honest. 

10. A great man, living to high ends, is the divinest 

thing on earth. 

11. Winter lingering chills the lap of May. 

Section 97. An Infinitive with a Subject 

(a) The bird sings. 

(b) The bird is singing. 

(c) I believe that the bird sings. 

(d) I have heard that the bird is singing. 

(e) I wish that the bird would sing. 

(f) I wish the bird to sing. 



VERBS 179 

(g) I expect the bird to be singing. 

(h) I hear the bird sing. 

(i) I hear the bird singing. 

(j) I thought the man to be honest. 

(k) I considered him honest. 

(1) That a man should die for his country is noble. 
(m) That a man should live for his country is nobler. 
(n) For a man to die for his country is noble, 
(o) For a man to live for his country is nobler. 
(p) It is noble for a man to die for his country. 

(q) It is a beautiful morning for a walk. 

(r) It is a beautiful morning for you to walk. 

(s) It is a beautiful morning for you to be walking. 

What is the subject of (a) ? of (b) ? the predicate of 
each .^ What clause is the object complement in (c) ? in 
(d) .^ What kind of verb is "wish" in (e) .^ What is its 
object ? Of this noun-clause, what is the subject .^ the predi- 
cate ? What is the object of "wish" in (f) ? Does the rela- 
tion between "bird" and "to sing" seem the same as that 
between the subject and predicate of the clause in (e) ? 
W^ould it seem right to call " bird " the subject of the infini- 
tive "to sing," in (f) '^ In (g), is "bird" the subject of the 
infinitive "to be singing" ? In (h), what is the object com- 
plement of "hear" .^ How do you know that "sing" is not 
a verb in the third person, singular number ? What word 
which you have usually seen before an infinitive is omitted 
before "sing" in (h) .^ What words are omitted from the 
infinitive in (i) ? What is the object of "thought" in (j) .^ 
What is the subject of the infinitive "to be" ? What is its 
attribute complement ? In (k), what words have been 
omitted ? Should they be supplied when you analyze the 
sentence ? 

What is the subject of (1) .^ of (m) "? What words in the 
phrase in (n) correspond with the subject and predicate of 



180 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

the noun clause of (1) ? What is the use of "That" in (1) 
and (m) ? "For" performs the same office in (n) and (o) ; 
what might you call " For" when used in this way ? What 
is the real subject of (p) ? What is the introductory sub- 
ject? What use has "for" in this sentence? What part of 
speech is "for" in (q) ? Is it the same in (r) ? in (s) ? What 
is the object of the preposition in (r) ? in (s) ? 

Insert " he " or " him " in place of " bird " in(d)and(e). 
What case of the pronoun did you use ? Now insert one 
of the same words in place of "bird" in (f), (g), (h), and 
(i). What case did you use ? Use " him" or " he" in place 
of "man" in (n) and (o). What case do you find used 
always as subject of an infinitive ? 

The subject of an infinitive is in the objective 
case. For may have its true value as a preposition 
before an infinitive with its subject in the objective 
case. 

Section 98. Constructions of Infinitives 

I. (a) To speak and to speak well are two things. (Sec- 
tion 4.) 
(b) Spending much is having little. (Sections 4 and 
12.) 
♦ (c) To have tried earnestly is success. (Section 4.) 

(d) To hear Webster was to be convinced. (Sections 

4 and 12.) 

(e) The Indians learned to deceive. (Section 13.) 

(f) We taught the Indians to deceive. (Section 13.) 

(g) Longfellow loved doing little kindnesses. (Sec- 

tion 13.) 
(h) By making Lincoln president, the people showed 

their trust in plain common sense. (Section 

26.) 
(i) Oh, see them run! (See Section 97.) 



VERBS 181 

Give the five constructions of infinitives found in these 
sentences. If you are in doubt about any of them, the sec- 
tion numbers will help you. 

The word to is usually what part of speech 't Does it 
show any relation in any of these sentences .'' Does it con- 
nect ? Does it name the action .^ Has it really any use in 
these sentences. 

Infinitives are found in five constructions : — 

1. as subject ; as, in (a), (b), (c), (d) ; 

2. as attribute complement ; as, in (b), (d) ; 

3. as object complement ; as, in (e), (f ), (g) ; 

4. as principal word in a prepositional phrase ; 

as, in (h). 

5. as part of a phrase, with the subject of the 

infinitive in the objective case ; ^ as, in (i). 

Because the word to is usually found with the 
infinitive, it has come to be called the sign of the 
infinitive. It is used when the infinitive is sub- 
ject, attribute complement, or object complement. 
But it forms no part of the infinitive and in some 
constructions it is dropped. (See Section 77.) 

Infinitives are used without the word to after : — 

1. the verbs dare, bid, need, make, let, can, may, 

must, shall, will; 

2. verbs denoting an action of the senses or of 

the mind ; as, hear and see. After any of 
these, the infinitive generally has a sub- 
ject in the objective case ; as, I hear the 
bell ring ; I hear the bell ringing. 

^ This construction should be included with those already given 
for the objective case, in Section 61. 



182 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

Exercise 
II. Write ten sentences, — two in which an infini- 
tive is subject ; two in which an infinitive is object ; 
two in which an infinitive is attribute ; two in which 
an infinitive is the principal word in a phrase ; two 
in which an infinitive is a part of a phrase, with the 
subject of the infinitive in the objective case. 

* 
Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 250, Sec- 
tion 54. 

Section 99. Parsing Verbs and Verbals 

I. To parse a verb or a verb-phrase, give : — 

1. its classification — 

(a) copulative or attributive, 

(b) transitive or intransitive, 

(c) progressive or emphatic (if it be one of 

these phrases) ; 

2. its principal parts ; 

3. its voice ; 

4. its mode ; 

5. its tense (note under tense the time that is 

indicated by such verbs as can, should, 
might, etc.) ; 

6. its person and number ; 

7. its agreement, naming its subject. 

Model. " God gives every bird its food, but he does not 
throw it into the nest." 

"Gives" is a transitive, attributive verb. Its principal 
parts are give, gave, given. It is in the active voice, indica- 



VERBS 183 

live mode, present tense, third person, singular number, 
agreeing with its subject, "God." 

"Does throw" is a transitive, attributive, emphatic 
verb-phrase. Its principal parts are throw, threw, thrown. 
It is in the active voice, indicative mode, present tense, 
third person, singular number, agreeing with its subject, 
"he." 

"Should old acquaintance be forgot?" 

"Should" is a transitive, attributive verb. Its principal 
parts are shall, should ; it has no participle. It is in the 
active voice, indicative mode, past tense, denoting present 
or future time, third person, singular number, agreeing 
with its subject, "acquaintance." 

"Be forgot" is a present, passive infinitive, from the 
transitive verb forget. It is used as the object complement 
of the verb "Should." 

" If all the year were playing holidays, 
To sport w^ould be as tedious as to work." 

"Were" is a copulative, intransitive verb. Its principal 
parts are be or am, was, been. It is in the subjunctive 
mode, past tense, denoting indefinite time, third person, 
singular number, agreeing with its subject, "year." 

"Would be" is a copulative, intransitive verb-phrase. 
Its principal parts are be or am, was, been. It is in the 
subjunctive mode, past tense, denoting indefinite time, 
third person, singular number, agreeing with its subject, 
"to sport." 

Exercise 

II. Turn back to Sections 45 and 51, and parse 
the verbs in the exercises. 

Exercise 

III. Analyze the following sentences and parse 
the verbals. 



184 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

To parse a verbal give : — 

1. its classification — as present, past, or per- 

fect ; active or passive ; 

2. the classification of the verb from which it 

is derived — as copulative or attributive ; 
transitive or intransitive ; 

3. its construction. 

Model. " 'T is an ill cure 

For life's worst ills to have no time to feel them." 

" To have" is a present, active infinitive, from the transi- 
tive verb have. It is the real subject of the sentence. 

"Feel" is a present, active infinitive, from the transitive 
verb feel. It is the principal word of a prepositional phrase. 

1. Teach me to feel another's woe. 

2. It is better to suffer wrong than to do it, and happier 

to be cheated sometimes than not to trust. 

3. It needs brains to be a real fool. 

4. So teach us to number our days that we may apply 

our hearts unto wisdom. 

5. Genius can never despise labor. 

6. All night long 

He had lain wakeful, tossing on his bed. 

7. Rustum had risen, 

i\.nd stood erect, trembling with rage. 

8. So did King Afrasiab bid me seek 
Thy counsel, and to heed thee. 

9. One of the best things in the world to be is a boy ; 

it requires no experience, though it needs some 
practice to be a good one. The disadvantage of 
the position is that it does not last long enough; 
it is soon over ; just as you get used to being a boy, 
you have to be something else, with a good deal 
more work to do and not half so much fun. 



VERBS 185 

10. She will hear the winds howling. 
Will hear the waves roar. 

11. I heard of his attempting to lift himself by his boot- 

straps. 

12. How sharper than a serpent's tooth it is 
To have a thankless child! 

Exercise 
IV. Analyze the sentences in paragraphs 2 and 3, 
on pages 250 and 251 ; parse all the nouns, pronouns, 
adjectives, verbs, and verbals. 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 253, Sec- 
tion 55. 

Section 100. Review 

What is a copulative verb? Give five examples. 
Make a sentence containing an objective comple- 
ment. Change this sentence to the passive voice. 
What is the subject of this sentence? the attribute? 
What joins them ? Then, can a transitive verb ever 
be copulative? For what four purposes do verbs 
change their form? What are the modifications of 
a verb ? Name and define the six tenses. How many 
subjunctive forms do we find? What mode has taken 
the place of the subjunctive? What one subjunctive 
form do w^e often hear ? What is the difference be- 
tween an infinitive and a participle ? May an infini- 
tive and a participle be spelled exactly alike ? Illus- 
trate. How, then, can you tell them apart? Can 
you think of any other w^ords that are spelled alike, 
though they are not the same part of speech ? What 
determines the name you will give to a word ? Give 



186 GBAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

all the infinitives, both active and passive, of " play/* 
Explain all about the use of the word " to " with in- 
finitives. In what constructions are infinitives used ? 
How do you know that the subject of an infinitive 
is in the objective case ? You can prove it by a sen- 
tence. How many constructions are included in the 
objective case? Give a sentence containing a noun 
and a participle used independently. In what case 
is the noun ? How many constructions are included 
in the nominative case ? What forms of a verb are 
called the principal parts? Why are they called 
principal parts ? What is an irregular verb ? What 
is meant by the synopsis of a verb ? Give the syn- 
opsis of the verb " hunt " in both active and passive, 
in the third person, singular number. Does it take 
longer to give the synopsis than the conjugation of 
a verb? Can the progressive conjugation ever be 
found in the passive voice ? What is the difference 
between the progressive and the passive conjugation 
of a verb ? What parts are the same ? What parts 
are different? Give the progressive conjugation of 
the verb " dance." How do you form the emphatic 
verb-phrase ? In what tenses is it used ? Give the 
complete conjugation of the verb " strike." 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 253, Sec- 
tion 5^, 



CHAPTER VI 

ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, AND CONJUNCTIONS 

Section 101. Adverbs 

I. An adverb is a word that modifies the meaning of a 
verb, an adjective, or an adverb. (See Section 22.) 

(a) Just above the horizon hung a golden fleece. 

(b) Absence of occupation is not rest. 

(c) Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me all the 

days of my life. 

(d) Eyes are not so common as some people think, or 

poets would be more plentiful. (See Section 46.) 

What does " Just " modify in (a) ? " not ' ' in (b) ? " Surely " 
in (c).^ "Not" and "Surely," by modifying asserting 
words, change the meaning of the whole sentences. 

Adverbs generally modify words ; but rarely one 
is found modifying a prepositional phrase, and it 
seems almost to modify the preposition itself ; as, 
in (a). 

The number of adverbs is very large. They are 
generally classified as: — 

1. adverbs of time; as, now, never, then ; 

2. adverbs of place ; as, here, everywhere, 

yonder ; 

3. adverbs of manner ; as, well, harshly, won- 

derfully ; 

4. adverbs of degree; as, very, too, exceed- 

ingly; 

5. adverbs of cause, or consequence; as, hence, 

therefore, so. 



188 ■ GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

A few adverbs modify the copula idea of a verb, 
and through this the whole sentence. Their modifi- 
cation changes the mode, or manner, of the assertion. 
They are called modal adverbs. The commonest^ 
modal adverbs are certainly, surely, not, possibly, 
perhaps. 

Yes and no are adverbs. These words take the 
place of whole sentences. 

Some adverbs serve as connectives. They are 
called conjunctive adverbs. A few conjunctive ad- 
verbs, — as-as, so-as, the-the, — are found in pairs, 
and so are called correlative conjunctive adverbs. So, as 
a correlative, should be used only after a negative. 

Adverbs may be used as the interrogative words 
of a sentence, in either direct or indirect questions. 
They are then called interrogative adverbs. (Sec- 
tion 50.) 

Adverbs are usually single words ; but sometimes 
we find idiomatic phrases which have an adverbial 
use, and are hard to separate. Some examples are : 
at all, in vain, for sure, of late. 

Most adverbs of manner and a few others may be 
compared. The rules for their comparison are the 
same as the rules for the comparison of adjectives. 
(See Section 71.) 

Exercise 

II. Analyze the following sentences, and parse the 
adverbs. 

Model. " Much, " in sentence 7 below, is an adverb of 
degree. It is compared, — much, more, most. It is a modi- 
fier of "used." 



ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, AND CONJUNCTIONS 189 

" Just," in sentence (a), page 187, is an adverb of degree, 
modifying the phrase " above the horizon. " 

"Surely," in (c), is a modal adverb, modifying the verb 
"shall follow." 

1. Scarcely was he at sea, when a storm scattered his 

vessels. 

2. Here in the solitude he saw great meadows, where 

the moose with their young were grazing. 

3. Experience keeps a dear school, but fools will learn 

in no other. 

4. He is no wise man that will quit a certainty for an 

uncertainty. 

5. Things always seem fairer when we look back at 

them. 

6. The ancients were certainly more social than we, 

though that was natural enough when a good 
part of the world was still covered with forest. 
They huddled together in cities, as well for safety 
as to keep their minds warm. 

7. Knowledge and timber should n't be much used till 

they are seasoned. 

8. The world has a million roosts for a man, but only 

one nest. 
Q. One cannot burn his house down to warm the hands 
even of the fatherless and the widow. 

10. The lawn beneath the trees is already a rich emer- 

ald, and large gold stars begin to spangle it. 

11. The sun shone with mellow light across the rippling 

lake. 

12. Before the "Wonder-Book" was in the printer's 

hands, Hawthorne's children could repeat the 
greater part of it by heart, from hearing it read so 
often. 
13- California has been a land of promise in its time, 
like Palestine; but if the woods continue so 



190 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

swiftly to perish, it may become, like Palestine, a 
land of desolation. 

14- Nothing is more pleasant to the eye than green grass 

kept finely shorn. 

15- Still the daylight kept flooding insensibly out of the 

east, which was soon to grow incandescent and 
cast up that red-hot cannon-ball, the rising sun. 

1 6. He did not care a stalk of parsley if I wandered all 

night upon the hills. (See Section 30.) 

17. One charm of Rome is that nobody has anything in 

particular to do; or, if he has, he can always 
stop doing it on the slightest pretext. 

18. It is very common for people to say that they are 

disappointed in the first sight of St. Peter's ; and 
one hears much the same about Niagara. I can- 
not help thinking that the fault is in themselves ; 
and that if the church and the cataract were in the 
habit of giving away their thoughts, they might 
perhaps say of their visitors, "Well, if you are 
those Men of whom we have heard so much, we 
are a little disappointed, to tell the truth." 

Lowell. 

19. I care not. Fortune, what you me deny: 

You cannot rob me of free Nature's grace, 
You cannot shut the windows of the sky 

Through which Aurora shows her brightening 
face. 

Thomson. - 
Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 254, Sec- 
tion 57. 

Section 102. Prepositions 

I. A preposition is a word that shows the relation 
between the principal word of a phrase and the word the 
phrase modifies. (See Section 26.) 



ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, AND CONJUNCTIONS 191 

(a) Hail to the chief who in triumph advances! 

(b) Howe'er it be, it seems to me, 
'T is only noble to be good. 

(c) To all, to each, a fair good-night, 

And pleasing dreams, and slumbers light. 

(d) When I heard the song of the hermit thrush, I 

thought I had never heard singing until then. (See 
Section 53.) 

(e) The starry banner floats on high. 

(f) None knew her but to love her. (See Section 96.) 

(g) God never imposes a duty without giving the time to 

do it. (See Section 96.) 
(h) No generous man strives to be seen in his giving. 
(i) The poor poet 

Worships without reward, nor hopes to find 

A heaven save in his worship, 
(j) We should never be grieved by what slanderers say. 
(k) Oh, she will sing the savageness out of a bear. 

What part of speech is the principal word in these 
prepositional phrases ? If you need help to answer this 
question, see the sections indicated. In (i), "save" means 
"except." What is the construction of the phrase "in his 
worship " ? What is the preposition in (k) ? 

A preposition is usually a single word, but at times 
two or more words are combined to show relation. 
The ones most commonly seen are : out of, from out, 
on board of, on this side of, in front of, according to, 
for the sake of, as to, instead of, in spite of. 

The principal term of a prepositional phrase may 
be: — 

1. a noun ; as, in (a) and (k) ; 

2. a pronoun ; as, in (b) and (c) ; 

3. an infinitive ; as, in (f ), (g), and (h) ; 



192 , GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

4. a phrase ; as, in (i) ; 

5. a clause ; as, in (j). 

The relations most often shown by prepositions 
are those o£ time and place. In, on, at, near, to, up, 
down, over, under, through, and a number of other 
prepositions usually show a place relation. After, be- 
fore, during, at, in, until, and many others usually 
show a time relation. 

Sometimes prepositions are followed by words that are 
usually classified as adjectives or adverbs, such as " then " 
in (d) and " high " in (e). In such cases it will be better 
to call the words nouns, as they name a time or place 
idea. (See Section 53.) 

Besides these, there are others which show a 
variety of relations ; such as, by, of, for, with, against, 
through, from, since. 

Exercise 

II. Analyze the sentences, and parse the preposi- 
tions. 

To parse a preposition, tell the words between 
which it shows the relation. 

Model. "To" is a preposition showing the relation 
between the adjective "ready" and the infinitive "do." 

1. You find people ready enough to do the Samaritan 

act without the oil and twopence. 

2. The summer, after much preliminary sulking and 

blustering, seemed ready to begin. 

3. The bee does not atone for its sting by its honey - 

making. 

4. The morning breeze creeps up from the west. 
5- The dark months wore slowly on. 



ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, AND CONJUNCTIONS 193 

6. His is the earliest mess of (^reeii peas; his all the 

mulberries I had fancied mine. He keeps a strict 
eye over one's fruit, and knows to a shade of 
purple when your grapes have cooked long enough 
in the sun. 

7. A tiny speck very close to our vision may blot out the 

glory of the whole world. 

8. It is not possible to make an omelet without breaking 

eggs. 
Q. A sapling pine he wrenched from out the ground. 

10. The yellow violet's modest bell 

Peeps from the last year's leaves below. 

11. In the midst of this sublime and terrible storm, 

Dame Partington, who lived upon the beach, was 
seen at the door of her house with mop and pat- 
tens, trundling her mop, squeezing out the sea- 
water, and vigorously pushing away the Atlantic 
ocean. The Atlantic was aroused ; Mrs. Parting- 
ton's spirit was up. But I need not tell you that 
the contest was unequal ; the Atlantic ocean beat 
Mrs. Partington. 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 254, Sec- 
tion 58. 

103. Conjunctions 

A conjunction is a word that connects words, phrases, 
and clauses. (See Section 45.) 

(a) The fanning wind and purling stream continue her 

repose. 

(b) The waterfalls loud anthems raise, 
By day and in their dreams. 

(c) A soft answer turneth away wrath; but grievous 

words stir up anger. 



194 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

(d) We cannot expect to be happy, if we do not lead pure 

and useful lives. 

(e) I know Sir John will go, though he were sure it 

would rain cats and dogs. 

(f) The warm breezes whispered such words of en- 

couragement that the tender violet lifted its head 
from the mould. 

(g) Gather ye rosebuds while ye may. 

(h) Think not that thy word and thine alone must be 
right. 

(i) Either youth must learn economy, or old age must 
suffer want. 

(j) Neither good clothes nor great wealth admit to the 
best society, 

(k) I supposed you lived together upon your Spanish 
estates. I once thought I knew the way to mine. 

What elements are connected by conjunctions in (a), (b), 
(c), and (i) ? Are they of equal rank ? A conjunction con- 
necting elements of equal rank is called a co-ordinating 
conjunction. 

What kind of sentences are (d), (e), (f), (g), and (h)? 
What do the conjunctions connect ? Are the elements con- 
nected of equal rank ? A conjunction connecting elements 
of unequal rank is called a subordinating conjunction. 

A co-ordinating conjunction is one that joins parts of a 
sentence that are of equal rank. 

A subordinating conjunction is one that joins a depend- 
ent clause to an independent clause. 

The words introducing noun clauses are closely re- 
lated to subordinating conjunctions. They do not, 
however, have any connective value, and are better 
called introductory words. The ones most often seen 
are that, whether, and if. (See Sections 47 and 50.) 

A few groups of words are used as connectives. 



ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS, AND CONJUNCTIONS 195 

The ones most often seen are as if, as though, as well 
as, so that, in order that, provided that, according as. 

A few conjunctions are found used in pairs. 
These are called correlative conjunctions. The prin- 
cipal correlatives are either-or, neither-nor, both-and, 
not-but, whether-or. 

A conjunction is often omitted when the relation 
between the parts of the sentence is perfectly clear 
without it. This is seen most frequently in the case 
of and and but, and of that introducing noun clauses. 

After a conjunction of comparison (as or than), 
there is often an omission of a part of the dependent 
clause. The same thing occurs after as if or as 
though, when everything but the predicate attribute 
in the dependent clause is sometimes omitted. Ex- 
ample : The bird sang as if (he were) drunk with 
morning dew. 

To parse a conjunction, give its classification, and 
the words or parts of sentences it connects. 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 255, Sec- 
tion 59. 

Section 104. General Review 

Analyze the following sentences and parse all the 
words. 

1. Joy is more divine than sorrow; for joy is bread and 

sorrow is medicine. 

2. Men are made by nature unequal. It is vain, there- 

fore, to treat them as if they were equal. 

3. Dost thou love lif e .^ Then squander not time, for 

time is the stuff life is made of. 



196 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 

4. If you wish learning, you must work for it. 

5. Thou shouldst not have been old till thou hadst been 

wise. 

6. My tongue within my lips I rein; 

For who talks much must talk in vain. 

7. Never hold any one by the button or the hand in 

order to be heard out; for if people are unwilling 
to hear you, you had better hold your tongue than 
them. 

8. By the shores of Gitche Gumee, 
By the shining Big-Sea- Water, 
Stood the wigwam of Nokomis, 
Daughter of the Moon, Nokomis. 
Dark behind it rose the forest, 

Rose the black and gloomy pine-trees, 
Rose the firs with cones upon them. 

9. The voice and manner of speaking, too, are not to be 

neglected. Some people almost shut their mouths 
when they speak, and mutter so that they are not 
to be understood ; others speak so fast, and sputter, 
that they are not to be understood either; some 
always speak as loud as if they were talking to deaf 
people; and others, so low that one cannot hear 
them. All these habits are awkward and disagree- 
able, and are to be avoided by attention ; they are 
the distinguishing marks of the ordinary people 
who have had no care taken of their education. 

Chesterfifld. 

For further practice in analysis and parsing, use 
selections given in Chapter VII, and selections from 
readers. 

Composition 

For the lesson in Composition, see page 255, Sec- 
tion 60. 



CHAPTER VII 

LESSONS IN COMPOSITION 
SECTION 1. LETTER- WRITING. 

The form of letter generally accepted as correct 
contains six parts : heading, address, salutation, 
body of letter, complimentary close, and signature. 

One of the ordinary forms is given below : — 

(Heading.) 

4 Pakk Street, Boston, Mass., 
March 17, 1874. 
(Address.) 

Mr. John G. Whittier, 

Amesbury, Mass. 

(Salutation.) 

Mr DEAR Sir: 

(Body of Letter.) 

(Complimentary close.) 
Very truly yours, 

(Signature.) 

James E. Osgood. 

In business letters, and in most others, the heading 
should be placed and arranged as in the form above. 
In formal notes of invitation, acceptance, and regret, 
it is omitted altogether; and in other social notes the 
written address cf the sender is sometimes omitted and 
the date w^ritten out in words just below the signature 
and at the left of the page. 

The address should be Avritten as in the form, but it is 
sometimes omitted in letters to relatives and intimate 
friends. In writing to a person, Mr., Master, Mrs., Miss, 
or other title should be properly used with the name in the 
address. In business letters to a firm or company, the 
firm or company name is often written without the prefix 
"Messrs." 

Formal styles of salutation include Sir, Dear Sir, My 



198 COMPOSITION 

dear Sir, Dear Sirs, Gentlemen, Dear Madam, My dear 

Madam, Dear Mesdames, Dear Mr. , My dear 

Mr. , Dear Mrs. , My dear Miss , etc., etc. 

Custom sanctions the punctuation of the salutation with 
the colon, colon and dash, or comma and dash. 

Forms of complimentary close include Yours truly, 
Yours very truly, Very truly yours. Yours sincerely, 
Yours cordially, etc., etc. These forms are often preceded 
by the words " I am " or " I remain " written on the pre- 
ceding line at the end of the sentence that closes the body 
of the letter. 

The address, the salutation, the complimentary close, 
and the signature, as well as the heading, are all omitted 
in formal notes of invitation, acceptance, and regret. 



Write a letter to some author whose story or poems 
you have read. 

Tell him that some one gave you a copy of his 
book, or a volume of his poems, as a present. Was 
it your father ? your mother ? some other relative ? 
your teacher ? or a friend ? Was it a Christmas or 
a birthday present ? 

Tell him which poem in the volume, or what part 
of the story, you like best. Why ? 

Thank him for the pleasure the book has given 
you. 

Remember all you have learned about letter- writ- 
ing in your language study. Be sure to paragraph, 
capitalize, and punctuate correctly. 

Read your letter in class. 



IDIOMATIC SENTENCES FOR DRILL. 

It does n't matter. It is n*t true. There are three boys 
in the class. There are not three boys in the class. They 



INFORMAL LETTERS 199 

don't wish lo he hentcii. Thoy are not of iliat kind. Is he 
ready ? Is n't he ready ? Are n't you ready ? Does n't 
James get the answer ? He does n't seem to. Is n't it 
strange? It is n't very hard. They are n't very hard. 

SECTION 2. INFORMAL LETTERS. 

Here is a letter which Phillips Brooks wrote to his 
httle niece. Phillii^s Brooks was a loved and ad- 
mired bishop of the Episcopal Church, a charming 
gentleman, and a Iqver of children. While travel- 
ing abroad, he wrote many letters to his nieces. 
There seem to have been three of them, Agnes, 
Gertrude, and " Toody," who must have been the 
baby. 

Venice, August 13, 1882. 
Dear Gertie, — 

When the little children in' Venice want 
to take a bath, they just go down to the front steps of 
the house and jump off, and swim about in the street. 
Yesterday I saw a nurse standing on the front steps, 
holding one end of a string, and the other end was tied to 
a little JFellow who was swimming up the street. When he 
went too far, the nurse pulled the string and got her baby 
home again. Then I met another youngster, swimming in 
the street, whose mother had tied him to a post at the side 
of the door, so that when he tried to swim away to see 
another boy, who was tied to another door-post up the 
street, he could n't, and they had to sing out to one an- 
other over the water. 

Is not this a queer city ? You are always in danger of 
running over some of the people and drowning them, 
for you go about in a boat instead of a carriage, and use 
an oar instead of a horse. But it is very pretty; and the 
people, especially the children, are very bright, and gay, 
and handsome. When you are sitting in your room at 
night, you hear some music under your window, and look 
out, and there is a boat with a man with a fiddle, and a 



200 COMPOSITION 

woman with a voice, and tliey are serenading you. To be 
sure, they want some money when they are done, for 
everybody begs here, but they do it very prettily, and are 
full of fun. 

Tell Susie I did not see the queen this time. She was 
out of town. But ever so many noblemen and princes 
have sent to know how Toody was, and how she looked, 
and I have sent them all her love. 

There must be lots of pleasant things to do at Andover, 
and I think you must have had a beautiful summer there. 
Pretty soon now, you will go back to Boston. Do go into 
my house when you get there, and see if the doll and her 
baby are well and happy (but do not carry them off) ; and 
make the music-box play a tune, and remember 
Your affectionate uncle, 

Phillips. 

What part of a formal letter has been omitted in this 
letter ? Can you give a reason for including the address 
in all letters ? If the envelope in which the letter was 
mailed had been incorrectly or illegibly addressed it 
would have gone to the Dead Letter Office, where it would 
have been opened. Could it have been forwarded from 
there to the person for whom it was intended ? 

Is the writer's full name signed to this letter ? Why not ? 



Imagine that you are Gertie. Answer the delight- 
ful letter given above. Make up some good things 
^o tell him about yourself and the other children, 
your work and play. 

Read your letter in class. 

SECTION 3. FRIENDLY LETTERS. 

Write a letter to a school friend, or chum, who 
has gone to Quebec for the summer. Include in your 
letter one of the following incidents : ^ — - 

^ In this and other exercises, when a choice of topics is suggested ; each 
pupil should select one, or the teacher may assign each topic to certain 
members of the class. 



TELEGRAM AND LETTER WRITING 201 

(a) Imagine that you have gone to the seashore or to a 
lake for the summer. While out boating one day, 
you were overtaken by a storm. The boat, which 
contained two boys and a girl, capsized. What 
happened ? Tell all the details. 

(b) If you prefer, imagine that you saw the accident 
from the shore. Tell how it looked to you, and 
how you felt to see your friends struggling to save 
themselves. 

(c) While out driving, you were overtaken by a terrific 
thunder-storm. Tell of your experiences and de- 
scribe the storm. 

Read your letter in class. 



In writing a friendly letter remember that : — 

1. Friends are interested in you, and the smallest 
details that concern you are interesting; 

2. The language you use should sound "just like you '* 
in pleasant conversation; 

3. With your most intimate friends you cannot afford 
to be less than courteous; this will guide you to 
the use of a dignified salutation and complimentary 
close ; 

4. Every letter should be properly paragraphed and 
punctuated correctly. 

SECTION 4. TELEGRAM AND LETTER WRITING. 

Imagine that yon are away from home, and that 
your leg was broken in a runaway accident. You 
telegraphed to your father what you thought neces- 
sary and kept it within ten words. In the telegram 
you stated that a letter was following it. Your 
father telegraphed a reply. 

Write both telegrams and the letter you wrote 
telling ho^v the accident happened. Read them in 
class. 



202 COMPOSITION 

In writing telegrams, remember that it is not necessary 
to use complete sentences. A telegram must be brief 
because the cost of sending it depends upon the number 
of words in its body. A message of ten words is charged 
for at a certain fixed rate, and an additional charge is 
made for each word in excess of ten. No charge is made 
for the address and signature. 

Make your telegrams say in the fewest possible words 
what you need to say. 

SECTION 5. BUSrKTESS LETTERS. 

Write, in letter form, an order for three articles 
of merchandise that you need, or would like to have. 
Address the order to some large dealer in your own 
city, or in the city nearest to you. 

Suppose that when the goods arrive, one of the 
articles is not satisfactory. Write a letter stating 
that you have returned the article, and giving a 
definite reason for doing so. 

Read your letters in class. 



Remember that in a letter ordering goods : — 

1. The description of the goods must be accurate, so 
that the dealer will know exactly what you wish ; 

2. The directions for shipping should be definite and 
complete ; 

S. If money to pay for the goods is inclosed, the amount 

should be named in the body of the letter; 
4. Your name and address should be perfectly legible. 



IDIOMATIC SENTENCES FOR DRILL. 

I have six dollars ; how many have you ? Has he as 
many as I ? She has n*t asked to go. She has n't been 
asked to go. Have n't you been there ? There have been 
four persons here. There has not been time. I have n't 
any paper. Are n't you ready yet ? He is n't going at all. 



LETTERS OF APPLICATION 203 

SECTION 6. BUSINESS loETTERS AND ADVERTISEMENTS. 

Imagine that you are running" a business, — a 
store, a factory, a dressmaking establishment, or a 
restaurant. It has grown rapidly ; you need help. 
Write a twenty-word advertisement for insertion in 
the newspaper, stating what you wish. Include in 
it a request that each applicant state his previous 
experience. 

Write a letter applying for the position referred 
to in the advertisement. 

Read your advertisement and your letter in class. 



In writing advertisements, remember that it is not 
necessary to use complete sentences. Advertisements, 
like telegrams, should be brief because they are charged 
for according to the number of words they contain, or 
the space they occupy when printed. 

Remember that your letter of application should be: — 

1. short; for the hurried man of business has no time 
to waste; 

2. frank; for the employer will wish to know your 
fitness for the position; 

3. well expressed; for you will be judged by the letter; 

4. in your best penmanship; for illegible or careless 
writing will be counted against you; 

5. courteous, dignified, aiid complete as to its heading, 
address, salutation, and complimentary close. 

SECTION 7. LETTERS OF APPLICATION AND RECOM- 
MENDATION. 

You have learned of a vacancy in a bank, in a 
corps of teachers, among the firemen on the nearest 
railway, or among the stenographers in a business 
office. You apply for the position by letter, inclos- 



204 COMPOSITION 

ing a letter of recommendation from the man that 
had employed you for the past three years. 
Write both letters. Read them in class. 



Remember what you have learned about writing letters 
of application. An employer will wish to know about 
your fitness for the position you desire; your education 
and training, your previous experience, and the wages 
for which you are willing to work. Such information 
should be given briefly and modestly. 

A letter that recommends vou for a position may be 
addressed to some one employer, or it may be without 
special address and intended for general use. Which 
of the two forms will you write ? Remember that an 
employer is likely to give more weight to a recom- 
mendation which is addressed to him personally. What 
should a good recommendation say about the person 
recommended ? Be sure that your letter says these 
things. 

SECTION 8. LETTERS OF INTRODUCTION. 

Write a letter to a friend in Boston, introducing a 
dear friend who is just going to that city to live. 
Make your letter so warm in its praise that your 
Boston friend will be delighted to do for his new 
acquaintance as much as he would do for you. 

Write a letter introducino; some one to a business 
acquaintance of yours. Assume that the person 
who is introduced desires some information, cour- 
tesy, or favor from your business friend. In your 
letter of introduction, name the information or favor 
that is desired, and say that if it is given, or granted, 
you will consider it a personal favor to you. 

Write on a piece of paper the proper form of 
address on the envelope for each letter. 



IDIOMATIC SENTENCES FOR DRILL 205 

The body of a letter of introduction usually begins: 

"This letter will introduce to you Mr. ." It usually 

closes with a statement that any kindness, or courtesy, 
shown to the person introduced will be regarded as a 
kindness, or courtesy, to the writer. A letter of introduc- 
tion is usually given to the person to be introduced and 
handed by him to the person to whom it is addressed. 

The envelope that contains a letter of introduction is 
usually left unsealed as a matter of courtesy to the person 

who uses it. The words, " Introducing Mr. ," are 

written on the face of the envelope, below and at the left 
of the address. This enables the receiver of the letter to 
learn the name of the person who hands it to him, without 
waiting to open and read the letter. 

SECTION 9. WRITTEN STORY AND DESCRIPTION FROM 
PICTURE STUDY. 

(a) On page 207 is a picture of an unpleasant 
situation. What had occurred in the afternoon to 
make it necessary to keep the boy in ? Do you 
think the old master is cruel? Or is he just trying 
to look stern to frighten the lad ? What did he do 
with the boy ? Write the whole story as you imagine 
it happened. 

(b) Write a description of the scene in the picture. 
It may help you to commence it something like 
this : — 

I had been visiting at my uncle's; and when Charles 
and James were at school, I had no one to play with. 
One day I waited and waited for them to come from 
school, but they did not come. So I made up my mind 
to go to meet them, expecting to find them somewhere 
playing. But . « . 



IDIOMATIC SENTENCES FOR DRILL. 

The concert began at eight o'clock. I have begun to 
study music. I gave my tickets to George. She laid her 



206 COMPOSITION 

hand on his shoulder. The vase lay on the floor broken. 
Lie on the couch and rest. We ran to the fire. Joe swam 
across the lake. The tardy bell has rung. Books have 
been laid away. The boys said you did it. James says he 
saw you. 

SECTION 10. PUNCTUATION. 

You have learned to use a period after a statement ; 
a question mark after a question ; and an exclama- 
tion mark after an exclamation. You probably find 
little trouble in using these marks of punctuation ; the 
comma and the semicolon are not so easy to use cor- 
rectly. One suggestion may be a help to you. 

Commas are used to keep words together that be- 
long together ; and to separate words that belong 
apart. One can almost imagine these little marks of 
punctuation to be like pieces of string used to tie up 
small bundles of radishes or onions in the market. 
They hold together small groups of words that belong 
in a bundle ; and at the same time they separate 
these groups from other groups with which they 
might become mixed. Here is a very simple sen- 
tence in which there are two groups of words which 
should be separated from each other, while the words 
of each group should be tied together. "The door 
stood ajar and the Prince went in." Insert a 
comma after " ajar," and observe how distinct it 
makes each unit in the sentence. Again, take this 
sentence : " There fast asleep Avere some soldiers with 
swords at their side." It contains two little groups 
of words that need to be separated from the rest of 
the sentence, while the words of each little group 
should be bound closer together. Notice how nicely 
this is done by the use of commas : " There, fast 
asleep, were some soldiers, with swords at their side." 




i^LVI IN 



•208 COMPOSITION 

This theory of the use of commas may be stated as 
a general principle, or rule, as follows : The words 
in a closely related group should be bound together, 
and separated from the rest of the sentence, by- 
commas. Nearly all the special rules for the use of 
commas are derived from this one rule. 

Sometimes a sentence contains large or important 
groups of words ; and these large groups may be 
made up of smaller groups that are separated from 
each other by commas. In such sentences, we use a 
semicolon to separate the large or important groups. 
The semicolon may be thought of as being a stronger 
comma, or "string." You will not need to use it 
very often. Here is a sentence in which the use of 
the semicolon is necessary to separate the two large 
groups of words : " He then gave her an account of 
the strange way in which he had come, and said that 
he would now mount his horse and go back to Persia ; 
for his royal father must be in great pain, not know- 
ing where his son might be." Notice that each of 
the two large groups of words is made up of two 
smaller groups separated by a comma. 

On pages 259 and 260, you will find a list of 
rules for the use of punctuation marks and capital 
letters. Study those rules carefully. You will need 
to refer to them frequently while preparing the les- 
sons that follow. 



Give the rule for the use of each period and 
comma in the following paragraphs : — 

The door stood ajar, and the Prince went in. He found 
himself in a hall lighted by a dim lamp. There, fast 
asleep, were some soldiers, with swords by their side. 
They were there to guard some one, and, as another door 



PUNCTUATION OF QUOTATIONS 200 

stood open, the Prince passed through into the inner room. 
There he saw lying on a couch a most beautiful woman, 
asleep, and, about her, also asleep, were her maids. 

The Prince knelt by the side of the couch and gazed at 
the fair creature. Then he gently twitched at her sleeve, 
and she awoke. Her eyes fell on the Prince kneeling there, 
but she showed no fear; for, as soon as her eyes opened, 
he said : — 

SECTION 11. PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 

The paragraphs that follow are printed without 
capital letters or punctaation marks. Copy them, 
using capital letters and punctuation marks as re- 
quired by the rules on pages 259 and 260 : — 

beautiful princess i am the prince of persia i have 
come here by a very strange way and i ask you to protect 
me i do not know where i am but i know no harm can 
come to me when i see before me so fair a princess 

you are in the kingdom of bengal she replied and i am 
the daughter of the king i am living in my own palace in 
I he country you may be sure that no harm will come to 
you if you have come from persia you have come a long 
way and must be hungry and tired i am very curious to 
know how you came but first you shall have food and 
sleep 

then the princess called her maids and they awoke and 
wondered much at what they saw. at the command of the 
princess they led the prince into the hall where they gave 
him food and drink then they led him to a room where he 
could sleep and left him 

SECTION 12. PUNCTUATION OF QUOTATIONS. 

Copy and punctuate the paragraphs that follow. 
Recall all you have learned about the punctuation of 
quoted conversation, and consult the rules at the end 
of this book, if necessary. Notice that a new para- 
graph begins whenever the speaker changes. 



210 COMPOSITION . 

Ma'am said the little boy what is it that sings 

There is no singing said she 

Yes cried the little fellow hear it Queek queek queek 
queek 

My friend and the woman both listened but they could 
hear nothing unless it was the song of the crickets fre- 
quent guests in bakers houses 

It is a little bird said the dear little fellow or perhaps 
the bread sings when it bakes as apples do 

No indeed little goosey said the bakers wife those are 
crickets that sing in the bakehouse because we are lighting 
the oven and they like to see the fire 

Crickets said the child are they really crickets 

Yes to be sure said she good-humoredly The childs 
face lighted up 

Ma'am said he blushing at the boldness of his request 
I would like it very much if you would give me a cricket 

A cricket said the bakers wife smiling what in the w^orld 
would you do with a cricket my little friend I would 
gladly give you all there are in the house to get rid of them 
they run about so 

O ma'am give me one only one if you please said the 
child clasping his little thin hands under the big loaf 
They say that crickets bring good luck into houses and 
perhaps if we had one at home mother who has so much 
trouble would n't cry any more 

SECTION 13. COMPOSITION WRITING. 

Begin where the conversation ends in Section 12, 
and go on with the story to the end, as you think 
it should be. The name of the story is, " The 
Crickets Brought Good Fortune." What kind of 
an ending will you have to the story ? 

Remember to inclose all quoted conversation in 
quotation marks. Be careful to use punctuation 
marks and capital letters as required bj the rules 
you have learned. 



PUNCTUATION 211 

SECTION 14. COMPOSITION WRITING. 

IMiou (liicf star! 
Centre of many stars! which mak'st our earth 
Endurable, and temperest the hues 
And hearts of all who walk w^ithin thy rays! 

Byron. 

Write about " The Sun/' as you have learned 
about it in your study of geography. Arrange your 
thoughts under the three topics given below and so 
make three paragraphs. Study the suggestions 
under each topic, before you write. 

1. The sun is the centre of the solar system. 

What comprise the solar system ? How far from the 
sun to the nearest planet ? to the farthest ? to the earth ? 
To get a good idea of the distance from the sun to the 
earth, compute how long it would take a train running 
forty miles an hour to go to the sun. 

2. The size of the sun. 

Give its diameter; then, to get a good idea of how big 
it is, suppose the centre of the sun to be placed on the 
centre of the earth, would the surface of the sun be out 
as far as the moon is ? Write out both the illustrations 
fully. 

fi. Uses of the sun. 

Tell this by describing what would happen if the sun 
were taken away. 

SECTION 15. PUNCTUATION. 

The following paragraphs are printed without 
punctuation marks and wdthout capital letters. Write 
them, with proper capitals and punctuation marks. 
Be sure that you indicate correctly the beginning 
and end of each sentence. 

let us reflect for a moment upon the wonderful force 



212 COMPOSITION 

which the sun must send forth to bend out of their courses 
into circular orbits such a number of planets some of 
them more than a thousand times larger than the earth 
were a ship of war under full sail we can easily imagine 
what a force it would require to turn her from her course 
by a rope attached to her bow especially were it required 
that the force remain stationary and the ship be so held 
as to be made to go round the force as round a centre 

somewhat similar to this but on a much grander scale 
is the action which is exerted on the earth in its journey 
round the sun by an invisible influence which is called 
gravitation the sun turns all the planets out of their course 
and bends them into a circular orbit round himself though 
they are all many million times more ponderous than the 
ship and are moving many thousand times more swiftly. 

SECTION 16. STUDY OF POEM. 

THE GIFT OF TRITEMIUS. 

• Tritemius of Herbipolis, one day, 
While kneeling at the altar's foot to pray 
Alone with God, as was his pious choice. 
Heard from without a miserable voice, 
A sound which seemed of all sad things to tell, 
As of a lost soul crying out of hell. 

Thereat the Abbot paused ; the chain whereby 
His thoughts went upward broken by that cry; 
And, looking from the casement, saw below 
A wretched woman, with gray hair a-flow, 
And withered hands held up to him, who cried 
For alms as one who might not be denied. 

She cried, " For the dear love of Him who gave 
His life for ours, my child from bondage save, — 
My beautiful, brave first-born, chained with slaves 
In the Moor's galley, where the sun-smit waves 
Lap the white walls of Tunis!" — "What I can 
I give," Tritemius said, "my prayers." — "O man 



STUDY OF POEM 213 

Of God!" she cried, for grief had made her bold, 
"Mock me not thus; I ask not prayers, but gold. 
Words will not serve me, alms alone suffice; 
Even while I speak perchance my first-born dies." 

"Woman!" Tritemius answered, "from our door 

None go unfed, hence are we always poor; 

A single soldo is our only store. 

Thou hast our prayers ; — what can we give thee more ? " 

"Give me," she said, "the silver candlesticks 
On either side of the great crucifix. 
God well may spare them on His errands sped, 
Or He can give you golden ones instead." 

Then spake Tritemius, "Even as thy word. 

Woman, so be it! (Our most gracious Lord, 

Who loveth mercy more than sacrifice, 

Pardon me if a human soul I prize 

Above the gifts upon his altar piled !) 

Take what thou askest, and redeem thy child.'* 

But his hand trembled as the holy alms 
He placed within the beggar's eager palms; 
And as she vanished down the linden shade. 
He bowed his head and for forgiveness prayed. 

So the day passed, and when the twilight came 
He woke to find the chapel all aflame, 
And, dumb with grateful wonder, to behold 
Upon the altar candlesticks of gold ! 

John Greenleaf Whittier. 

If Mr. Whittier had asked you to name the poem for 
him, what would you have called it .^ Why ? If your 
father had given almost everything he had that you might 
be well and strong again, do you think that, if there were 
no other way, he would sell his home to release you from 
pain? Are there, then, many Tritemius's around us? 

Select the words that you would not have used in' 
telling this story to your mother. Are the words here 



214 COMPOSITION 

prettier than those you would have used ? What passages 
do you Hke best in the poem ? 

Give the reasons for the marks of punctuation in 
the second stanza. 
Memorize the poem. 

SECTION 17. COMPOSITION WRITING. 

How beautiful is night! 
A dewy freshness fills the silent air ; 
No mist obscures; nor cloud, nor speck, nor stain, 

Breaks the serene of heaven. 
In full-orbed glory, yonder moon divine 
Rolls through the dark blue depths; 

Beneath her steady ray 
The desert circle spreads 
Like the round ocean, girdled with the sky. 
How beautiful is night! 

SOUTHEY. 

(a) THE MOON. 

1. Describe a moonlight evening. 

Begin the paragraph by telling where you w^ere and 
why you noticed that particular evening. Then in the last 
sentence say something like this: "The glorious night 
made me think of the source of this beauty." 

2. The size of the moon; and its distance from the 
earth. 

Compare it with the earth as to size. How large does 
it look to you ? How does its distance from the earth 
compare with the distance of the sun from the earth ? 

3. How the moon gives light. 

Is it, like the sun, a self-shining body ? 

4. The uses of the moon to us. 

(b) A VISIT TO THE MOON. 

1. The Journey. 

2. The Arrival. 



COMPOSITION WRITING 215 

How did you land ? What kind of people were there 
to meet you ? How did they greet you ? 

3. Visit to the Man in the Moon. 

4. What terrible incident awakened you from your 
dream ? 



IDIOMATIC SENTENCES FOR DRILL. 

The cars move slowly. Clara sings very sweetly. The 
lemonade seems sweet. Her dress fits nicely. It looks well 
on her. The chain looks nice. The bread tastes good. 
He swims well. The flowers look beautiful; they smell 
sweet. 

SECTION 18. COMPOSITION WRITING. 

And fast by, hanging in a golden chain, 
This pendent world, in bigness as a star 
Of smallest magnitude, close by the moon. 

Milton. 

the earth. 
Write three paragraphs about the earth, using the 
following topics : — 

1. The position of the earth in the solar system; its 
distance from the sun; its size. 

2. Appearance of the earth from the moon. 

Imagine that you live upon the moon, and that you 
have telescopes as powerful as those used on the earth. 
Could you tell water from land .^ Could you see the 
mountain ranges ? What difference could you observe 
between the part near the equator and the part near the 
poles 't 

3. Imagine that you watch the earth as it turns halfway 
round, and describe what you see. 

Suppose that your description begins either at New 
York, or at Tokio. Do not forget which way the earth 
turns. Describe only the important bodies of land and 
water that you could see from the moon with a large tele- 
scope, giving their position, shape, and relative size. 



216 COMPOSITION 

SECTION 19. COMPOSITION WRITING. 

(a) If you have read Dickens's " A Christmas 
Carol/' you know the character of Scrooge. Imagine 
that you and your mother were lost one March day 
in a London fog. Seeing a dim light in an office, 
you stepped in to inquire your way back to your 
home. You found that the office was Scrooge's. 
Write the story of your imaginary adventure, includ- 
ing the conversation you had with Scrooge. 

Be very careful about the paragraphs and the 
punctuation marks. 

(b) Possibly you have heard or read of some man 
that reminds yon of Scrooge, — only not so stingy 
and mean. Write some true or imagined story about 
him. 

SECTION 20. STUDY OF POEM. 
JUNE.i 

And what is so rare as a day in June? 

Then, if ever, come perfect days; 
Then Heaven tries earth if it be in tune. 

And over it softly her warm ear lays; 
Whether we look or whether we listen, 
We hear Ufe murmur, or see it glisten; 
Every clod feels a stir of might, 

An instinct within it that reaches and towers, 
And groping blindly above it for light, 

Climbs to a soul in grass and flowers; 
The flush of life may well be seen 

Thrilling back over hills and valleys; 
The cowslip startles in meadows green. 

The buttercup catches the sun in its chalice, 
And there's never a leaf nor a blade too mean 

To be some happy creature's palace; 
The little bird sits at his door in the sun, 

Atilt like a blossom among the leaves, 

1 From The Vision of Sir Launfal. 



STUDY OF POEM 217 

And lets his illumined being o'errun 

With the deluge of summer it receives; 
His mate feels the eggs beneath her wings. 
And the heart in her dumb breast flutters and sings; 
He sings to the wide world, and she to her nest, — 
In the nice ear of Nature which song is the best ? 

Now is the high-tide of the year, 

And whatever of life hath ebbed away 
Comes flooding back with a ripply cheer. 

Into every bare inlet and creek and bay; 
Now the heart is so full that a drop overfills it, 
We are happy now because God wills it; 
No matter how barren the past may have been, 
'T is enough for us now that the leaves are green ; 
We sit in the warm shade and feel right well 
How the sap creeps up and the blossoms swell; 
We may shut our eyes, but we cannot help knowing 
That skies are clear and grass is growing; 
The breeze comes whispering in our ear. 
That dandelions are blossoming near. 

That maize has sprouted, that streams are flowing, 
That the river is bluer than the sky. 
That the robin is plastering his house hard by; 
And if the breeze kept the good news back, 
For other couriers we should not lack; 

We could guess it all by yon heifer's lowing, — 
And hark! how clear bold chanticleer. 
Warmed with the new wine of the year. 

Tells all in his lusty crowing! 

James Russell Lowell. 

What lines in the poem seem to you especially beauti- 
ful ? Did you find ten words that seemed to go straight to 
the mark ? What are they ? Remember that if they were 
good words for Lowell to use, they are good for you to 
add to your vocabulary. Use them in the next lesson. 

By the way this is written, do you know whether 
Lowell loved out-of-doois ? Do you think he learned 
about these things when a boy ? or did he wait until he 



218 COMPOSITION 

was a man to find them out ? Pick out the beautiful 
things we can see in the spring. He says, " We may shut 
our eyes, but we cannot help knowing" some things. 
What are they ? What hues tell you that Lowell almost 
thought that flowers had souls just like people ? Here is a 
stanza from another poem by Lowell: — 

Violet! sweet violet! 
Thine eyes are full of tears; 
Are they wet 
Even yet 
With the thought of other years ? 
Or with gladness are they full, 

For the night so beautiful, 
And longing for those far-off spheres ? 

Memorize the description of June in Lowell's 
^' The Vision of Sir Launfal/' as given above. 

SECTION 21. COMPOSITION WRITZNa 

(a) What month in the year do you like best ? 
Write a short description of it. Tell about the 
weather and other things that make the month 
delightful to you. Tell what you can see and hear 
and do at that time of the year. 

(b) Write a description of your favorite flower. Do 
not give too many details about how the flower looks ; 
but try to make the reader feel as much love for the 
flower as you do. Before you write, read Bryant's 
" To the Fringed Gentian/' Wordsworth's " The 
Daffodils/' and any other poems you know that tell 
about a flower. 

(c) Write about your dog, cat, canary, rabbit, 
squirrel, — the pet you have liked most. 

SECTION 22. PARAGRAPHING AND PUNCTUATION. 

Write the fable that follows, paragraphing and 
punctuating it correctly. Remember that a new 



COMPOSITION WRITING 219 

paragraph should begin whenever the speaker 
chano'es in a conversation. 

o 

An ox grazing in a meadow chanced to set his foot on 
a young frog and crushed him to death His brothers 
and sisters who were playing near at once ran to tell their 
mother what had happened The monster that did it 
mother was such a size said they The mother who was a 
vain old thing thought that she could easily make herself 
as large Was it as big as this she asked blowing and puf- 
fing herself out Oh mother much bigger than that replied 
the young frogs As this then cried she puffing and blowing 
again with all her might Nay mother said they if you were 
to try till you burst yourself you would never be so big 
The silly old frog tried to puff herself out still more and 
burst herself indeed 

Add a short paragraph telling what this fable 
teaches. 

SECTION 23. COMPOSITION WHITING. 

If you do not know the characters of Scrooge and Sir 
Launfal, ask your teacher or some one else to read to you 
extracts from Dickens's " A Christmas Carol " and 
Lowell's "Vision of Sir Launfal," telling how Sir Launfal 
treated the leper who met him at the castle gate, and how 
Scrooge refused to give anything to the poor when the 
gentlemen called on him just before Christmas. 

Why did Scrooge refuse to help the poor ? Was it really 
generous of Sir Launfal to fling a coin to the leper as he 
passed him by ? Did he show the same spirit shown by 
Scrooge ? Which of the two do you like less ? What had 
Sir Launfal vowed to do when he became a knight ? 

(a) Write a brief comparison of Scrooge and Sir 
Launfal. 

(b) Write briefly on this topic : The poor man 
often is more generous than the rich man^ although 
he may not give so much. 



220 COMPOSITION 

(c) Write a short story telling of some generous 
act done by a poor person. 

SECTION 24. COMPOSITION 'WRITING. 

Night's candles are burnt out, and jocund day 
Stands tiptoe on the misty mountain-tops. 

Shakespeare. 

(a) Write three paragraphs on the subject, Day 
and Night. 

1. The Causes of Day and Night. 

2. Changes in the Length of the Day. 

3. The Use of the Change from Day to Night. 
Why not all day, or all night ? 

(b) Imagine that you have visited Norway and 
write a letter to some friend, telling about the mid- 
night sun. 

(c) Write about some game that you can play 
best just as it is growing dark. 

SECTION 25. COMPOSITION WRITING. 

How beautiful is the rain! 

After the dust and heat, 

In the broad and fiery street. 

In the narrow lane, 

How beautiful is the rain! 

Longfellow. 

(a) Write three paragraphs on the subject, Rain. 

1. How are clouds formed? Illustrate by the steam 
from boiling water. 

2. Why does it rain? Illustrate by a sponge. 

3. Uses of rain. Give three uses in this paragraph. 

(b) Write upon this topic : I remember so well 
the joy of being allowed to play barefoot in the road 
after a heavy shower. 



USE OF COMPOUND SENTENCES 221 

From the neighboring school 

Come the boys, 
With more than wonted noise 

And commotion; 
And down the wet streets 
Sail their mimic fleets, 
Till the treacherous pool 
Ingulfs them in its whirling 
And turbulent ocean. 

Longfellow. 

(c) Write of the pleasure you once had one June 
afternoon watchino" the shadows of the clouds chase 
one another across the hillside. 

SECTION 26. USE OF COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

Read the fable that follows. Notice that all the 
sentences are short and simple. Observe that the 
constant use of short sentences becomes monotonous 
and separates ideas that are closely related. 

Jupiter made Man. He gave him two wallets. One of 
the wallets was to hold his neighbor's faults. The other 
was to hold his own faults. Jupiter threw them over the 
Man's shoulder. One hung in front. The other hung 
behind. 

The Man kept the one in front for his neighbor's faults. 
He kept the one behind for his own faults. The first was 
always right under his nose. It took some pains to see the 
other. The first was full to bursting. The other hung flat 
and useless at his back. 

Re-write the fable, combining two or more of the 
sentences in one, wherever you think it will improve 
the composition to do so. In combining the sen- 
tences, use introductory and connecting words when- 
ever they are required to express the thought fully, 
or to make the sentences read smoothly. 



222 COMPOSITION 

Add a short paragraph telling what you think the 
fable teaches. 



IDIOMATIC SENTENCES FOR DRILL. 

May I go to the store ? You may at recess. ' I did my 
work before I came to school. Mary swung higher than 
you. Let go of the rope, please. The poor boy lay helpless 
by the roadside. Her fingers were frozen. Set the kettle 
over the blaze. She sat on the piazza. He came into the 
office yesterday. Who taught you how to play tennis ? 
Our doorbell does n't ring. 

SECTION 27. ARRANGEMENT OF SENTENCES, PARA- 
GRAPHING, PUNCTUATION, AND COMPOSITION 
WRITING. 

As soon as the sea had washed by, all hands sprang up 
out of the forecastle to see what had become of the ship. 
When a few moments had passed, the cook and old Bill 
crawled out from under the galley. If the galley had not 
rested against the bulwarks, it would have broken some 
of their bones. When the water had run off, we picked the 
sheep up, and put them in the long-boat. But if the ship 
had not had uncommonly high bulwarks and rail, every- 
thing must have been washed overboard, not excepting 
old Bill and the cook. 

The paragraph just above is not good, because 
each sentence begins with a dependent clause. It is 
given below with only two sentences changed ; but 
how much better it is ! In your own composition 
writing, seek for variety in the form and length of 
sentences. Do not have them all just alike. 

As soon as the sea had washed by, all hands sprang 
out of the forecastle to see what had become of the ship; 
and in a few moments the cook and old Bill crawled out 
from under the galley. Fortunately, it rested against the 
bulwarks, or it would have broken some of their bones. 



COMPOSITION WRITING 223 

When the water ran off, we picked the sheep up and put 
them in the long-boat; but had not our ship had uncom- 
monly high bulwarks and rail, everything must have been 
washed overboard, not excepting old Bill and the cook. 

In the first paragraph below, the last two sen- 
tences are as written by the author, Kenneth Gra- 
hame. Re-write the other sentences, to be as you 
think the author wrote them. Separate into proper 
paragraphs the sentences of the group that follows 
the first paragraph, and punctuate them correctly. 

After I had been engaged in chasing Farmer Larkin's 
calves — his special pride — round the field, just to show 
him we had n't forgotten him, I was returning through 
the kitchen garden with a conscience at peace with all 
men. When I happened upon Edward, he was grubbing 
for worms. When Edward put the worms into his hat, we 
strolled along together, discussing high matters of state. 
As we reached the tool -shed, strange noises arrested our 
steps. When we looked in, we perceived Harold, alone, 
rapt, absorbed, immersed in the special game of the 
moment. He was squatting in an old pig-trough that had 
been brought in to be tinkered; and as he rhapsodized, 
anon he waved a shovel over his head, anon dug it into the 
ground with the action of those who would urge Canadian 
canoes. Edward strode in upon him. 

What rot are you playing at now he demanded sternly 
Harold flushed up but stuck to his pig-trough like a man 
I m Jason he replied defiantly and this is the argo The 
other fellows are here too only you can t see them and 
we re going through the Hellespont so don t come bother- 
ing round and once more he plied the wine-dark sea 
Edward kicked the pig-trough contemptuously Pretty 
sort of argo you ve got said he Harold began to get 
annoyed I can t help it he replied it s the best sort of argo 
I can manage and it s all right if you pretend enough but 
you never pretend one bit Edward reflected Look here 
he said presently why should n t we get hold of Farmer 



224 COMPOSITION 

Larkin's boat and go away up the river in a real argo 
and look for Medea and the golden fleece and every- 
thing And 1 11 tell you what I don t mind your being Ja- 
son as you thought of it first. 

Finish the story. Did the boys ask to go ? Did 
they go ? Did they ask Farmer Larkin for his boat ? 
Did anything happen ? Did the folks at home find 
it out? 

SECTION 28. COMPOSITION WRITING. 

True worth is in being, not seeming, — 
In doing each day that goes by 
Some little good — not in the dreaming 
Of great things to do by and by. 

Alice Gary. 

Think of Sir Launfal again. Where was he when 
he helped the poor beggar, — abroad in a far land 
or at home ? Was it a great deed that gave him the 
sight of the holy grail ? And did Scrooge have to 
go far to find some one to help? 

Write a paragraph upon this topic : — 

The greatest joy and blessing comes from doing some 
little kindness at home. 

Or, write a story that illustrates it. 

SECTION 29. COMPOSITION WRITING. 

A little stream came tumbling from the height, 

And struggling into ocean as it might. 

Its bounding crystal frolick'd in the ray, 

And gushed from cliff to crag with saltless spray. 

Byron. 

(a) Suppose a drop of water had traveled from 
its clear spring to the distant ocean, and had told 
you what it saw on this long journey. Write the 
story as you imagine it was told to vou. Use as a 
title, " The Story of a Drop of Water." 



STUDY OF POEM 225 

(b) Write upon the subject, " The Blessings of 
Rivers." 

1. Transportation. 

2. Power. 

3. Irrigation. 

4. Beauty and pleasure. 

"The river knows the way to the sea; 
Without a pilot it runs and falls, 
Blessing all lands with its charity." 

SECTION 30. STUDY OF POEM AND COMPOSITION 
WRITIN-G. 

GOD BLESS US EVERY ONE.^ 

"God bless us every one!" prayed Tiny Tim, 
Crippled, and dwarfed of body, yet so tall 
Of soul, we tiptoe earth to look on him, 
High towering over all. 

He loved the loveless wo"rld, nor dreamed indeed 

That it, at best, could give to him, the while. 
But pitying glances, when his only need 
Was but a cheery smile. 

And thus he prayed, "God bless us every one!" — 

Enfolding all the creeds within the span 
Of his child-heart; and so, despising none, 
Was nearer saint than man. 

I like to fancy God, in Paradise, 

Lifting a finger o'er the rhythmic swing 
Of chiming harp and song, with eager eyes 
Turned earthward, listening — 

The Anthem stilled — the Angels leaning there 

Above the golden walls — the morning sun 
Of Christmas bursting flower-like with the prayer, 
" God bless us every one ! " 

James Whitcomb Riley. 

1 From A Book of Joyous Children, by J. W. Riley. Copyright, 1902, 
and published by Chas. Scribner's Sons. 



226 COMPOSITION 

In "A Christmas Carol," did Tiny Tim do anything 
that made his brothers and sisters love him ? Do you 
think it was just because he was a cripple that they 
loved him ? Is it possible that his cruel suffering helped 
to make him sweet and lovable ? 

(a) Write a short essay on this topic : — 

It has done me good to read " A Christmas Carol." 

Think how many things you have learned from the 
selection, and make as many paragraphs as you have divi- 
sions you wish to talk about. 

(b) Or upon this topic : — 

How much sweeter life would be if we had the spirit of 
Tiny Tim! 

(c) Or this: — 

How I wish I could write a story like " A Christmas 
Carol"! I would . . . 

SECTION 31. STUDY OF PARAGRAPHS. 

Just below are the first sentences of two selected 
paragraphs. Read them thoughtfully. 

1. It is the Indian summer. 

2. In fact, the cow is the true pathfinder and path- 
maker. 

As you studied each sentence, did you think what the 
rest of the paragraph might be ? At what time of the year 
does " Indian summer " come ? What sights and sounds 
do thoughts of it bring to your mind ? Can you give any 
reasons why the cow should be called "the true path- 
finder and pathmaker " ? Discuss the two sentences in 
class, and tell all that they suggest to you. 

In some of the preceding lessons, a single sentence 
has been given you to write upon. Each of those 
sentences contained the topic, or main thought, of 
the paragraph you wrote. So each of the two sen- 



STUDY OF PARAGRAPHS 227 

tences above contains, or expresses, the main thought 
of the piiragraph to which it belongs. Such a sen- 
tence is called the topic sentence of its paragraph. 

R3ad and study the two paragraphs that follow. 
Ask yourself what each sentence tells about. Does 
it add something to the thought expressed by the 
topic sentence ? Are there any sentences that could 
be cut out because they do not tell something about 
the topic of the paragraph? 

1. It is the Indian summer. The rising sun blazes 
through the misty air like a conflagration. A yellowish, 
smoky haze fills the atmosphere, 

And a filmy mist 
Lies like a silver lining on the sky. 

The wind is soft and low. It wafts to us the odor of 
forest leaves, that hang wilted on the dripping branches, 
or drop into the stream. Their gorgeous tints are gone, 
as if the autumnal rains had washed them out. Orange, 
yellow, and scarlet, all are changed to one melancholy 
russet hue. The birds, too, have taken wing, and have left 
their roofless dwelHngs. Not the whistle of a robin, not the 
twitter of an eaves-dropping swallow, not the carol of one 
sweet, familiar voice. All gone. Only the dismal cawing 
of a crow, as he sits and curses that the harvest is over; 
or the chit-chat of an idle squirrel, the noisy denizen of a 
hollow tree, the mendicant friar of a large parish, the 
absolute monarch of a dozen acorns. Longfellow. 

2. In fact, the cow is the true pathfinder and path- 
maker. She has the easy and deliberate movement that 
insures an easy and a safe way. Follow her trail through 
the woods, and you have the best, if not the shortest 
course. How she beats down the brush and briers and 
wears away even the roots of the trees ! A herd of cows 
left to themselves fall naturally into single file, and a hun- 
dred or more of hoofs are not long in smoothing and com- 
pacting almost any surface. Burroughs. 



228 COMPOSITION 

Look in your reading-book or history, and count 
the lines in each paragraph of some one prose selec- 
tion or lesson. About how many words are there 
in a line? About how many words do the para- 
graphs average ? How many words in the longest 
paragraph ? in the shortest ? What conclusions do 
you draw about the length of paragraphs ? 

Look at the paragraphs in some story you have 
read in school. Can you find a topic sentence in each 
of these paragraphs which narrates, or tells a story ? 
Does each paragraph treat of just one part of the 
story? What about the length of these paragraphs? 

The results of jour study may be summed up in 
the directions, or principles, that follow. Study them 
carefully ; they will help you to write good para- 
graphs. 

1. Put into each paragraph the thoughts you have 
about the topic of the paragraph. 

2. Keep out of a paragraph all thoughts that do not 
directly discuss the topic of the paragraph. 

3. Make a paragraph as long as it needs to be to tell 
what you wish to say about the topic, whether it be 
twenty words or five hundred. 

4. At or near the beginning of most paragraphs that 
explain or describe, and of some that narrate, there 
should be a topic sentence. 

5. Think out how many topics you will divide your 
subject into. Make as many paragraphs as there are 
topics in your outline. 

6. Always use an outline when you write more than one 
paragraph. 

SECTION 32. PARAGKAPH WRITING. 

Write a paragraph of about seventy-five words 
using one of the following sentences as a topic 
sentencBo 



PARAGRAPH WRITING 229 

(a) It must have taken great courage to sail west into 
an unknown sea, as Columbus did. 

(b) I have always thought that spring (or summer, or 
autumn, or winter) is the most delightful time of 
year. (Tell why.) 

(c) If a man wishes to influence young people, he must 
practice what he preaches. 

(d) The men who are doing the world's work today — 
our best judges, our engineers, our managers of 
great enterprises, indeed the first men in ail lines 
of action — have, as a rule, come from the farm. 
(Go on and tell why this is so.) 

IDIOMATIC SENTENCES FOR DRILL. 

It was I who spoke. Jane and I are going to the Fair. 
I wish I were he. We girls Avill decorate the room. May 
George and I take the book ? Loan it to George and me. 
That is he, is n't it ? Let Ruth and me play. Between you 
and me, we shall do it. It was impossible for James and 
me to w ork it. It is she ; he does n't see her. It is such as 
they who succeed. There shall be no dispute between 
you and me. It is he who sits between you and me. 

SECTION 33. PARAGRAPH WRITING. 

Write a paragraph on one o£ the following topic 
sentences. Remember that sentences should not all 
be formed alike ; nor should they be of the same 
leno'th. 

(a) It seems to me that the Indians have not always 
been treated fairly by our government. 

(b) I intend to learn to do something, so that if it 
should be necessary, I can earn my own living. 

(c) Football is a good game. (It teaches . . . etc.) 

(d) Cooking schools have proved their great value. 
(Why ?) 



230 COMPOSITION 

SECTION 34. STUDY OF POEM. 

COLUMBUS. 

St. Stephen's cloistered hall was proud 

In learning's pomp that day, 

For there a robed and stately crowd 

Pressed on in long array. 

A mariner with simple chart 

Confronts that conclave high, 

While strong ambition stirs his heart, 

And burning thoughts of wonder part 

From lip and sparkling eye. 

Courage, thou Genoese! Old Time 

Thy splendid dream shall crown; 

Yon Western hemisphere sublime. 

Where unshorn forests frown, 

The awful Andes' cloud-wrapt brow, 

The Indian hunter's bow, 

Bold streams untamed by helm or prow, 

And rocks of gold and diamonds, thou 

To thankless Spain shalt show. 

Courage, World-finder! Thou hast need! 

In Fate's unfolding scroll, 

Dark woes and ingrate wrongs I read, 

That wrack the noble soul. 

On! on! Creation's secrets probe, 

Then drink thy cup of scorn. 

And wrapt in fallen Caesar's robe. 

Sleep like that master of the globe. 

All glorious, —yet forlorn. 

Lydia Huntley Sigourney. 

Memorize this poem, and read or recite the poem 
on Columbus by Joaquin Miller.^ 

1 This poem is printed in Book I of the WehsUr-Cooley Two-Book 
Course in Language, Grammar, and Coviposition. It is also printed in 
many collections of songs and patriotic poems. 



PARAGRAPH WRITING. 231 

SECTION 35. ESSAY WRITING. 

Write an essay of not less than five paragraphs, 
using' the snbject and outline here given. Before 
you Avrite, review all you have learned about Colum- 
bus in your study of history. 

COLUMBUS. 

i . The difficulty he met in getting help to carry out his 
plans. 

Why did he have trouble ? Would he today under 
like conditions ? 

2. Preparations for the first voyage. 

3. The first voyage. Its discouragements, dangers, and 
results. 

4. His other voyages and discoveries. 

5. The reward he received for his great work. 

Did he receive the recognition and reward which 
he had earned ? AVhy not ? What were the cir- 
cumstances of his later life, and of his death ? 

SECTION 36. PARAGRAPH ARRANGEMENT AND PUNCTUA- 
TION. PARAGRAPH WRITING. 

Divide the following selection into paragraphs, 
and punctuate it correctly. Eemember that : — 

1 . a paragraph is composed of the thoughts about one 
topic ; 

2. paragraphs are not all of the same length; 

3. in conversation, a new paragraph begins when the 
speaker changes. 

THE MICE IN COUNCIL. 

A certain cat tliat lived in a lar^e country-house was 
so vigilant and active that the mice findino- their. numbers 
grievously thinned hold a council with closed doors to con- 
sider what they had best do Many plans had been started 
and dismissed when a young mouse rising and catching 
the eye of the president said that he had a proposal to 



232 COMPOSITION 

make that he was sure must meet with the approval of all 
If said he the cat wore around her neck a little bell every 
step she took would make it tinkle then ever forewarned 
of her approach we should have time to reach our holes 
By this simple means we should live in safety and defy her 
power The speaker resumed his seat with a complacent 
air and a murmur of applause arose from the audience 
An old gray mouse with a merry twinkle in his eye now 
got up and said that the plan of the last speaker was an 
admirable one but he feared it had one drawback My 
young friend has not told us said he who is to put the bell 
on the cat 



Write a paragraph on one of the topic sentences 
that follow: — 

(a) It is easy to think about doing brave deeds, but it 
is not so easy to do them. 

(b) I never read the story of Columbus without saying 
to myself : I '11 never give up ! 

(c) Wise men n:ay sneer and fools may laugh: but 
whoever discovers new worlds must sail the un- 
known seas. 

(d) The life of every man who has attained an honor- 
able position in the world has in it a lesson for 
each of us. 

SECTION 37. ESSAY WBITrNG. 

Write an essay of five paragraphs on the subject, 
^' Our Pioneers." For the first paragraph, write the 
one given just below. Follow the outline, or sugges- 
tions, for the other paragraphs. 

(a) 1. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, 
many brave men sailed away toward the setting sun. 
Some wished to serve their king, and gain new possessions 
for the crown; others fled from religious persecution; 
others sought gold or immortal youth; while still others 
sailed away just for the love of adventure. Whatever their 
reasons may have been, these daring adventurers tried 



LETTER-WRITING 232 

the fortunes of unknown seas and brought to Hght a New 
World. 

2. Who estabHshed colonial rights for their kings ? 
(Write a short paragraph about them.) 

3. Who sought freedom of religion ? 

4. Who searched for the fountain of youth, and who 
for gold ? 

5. Who sailed away just for the sport of it, — were 
almost pirates ? 

Or write on one of the following subjects, pre- 
paring your own outline : — 

(b) Baby's Trip of Discovery. 

(c) A Visit to a Haunted House. 

SECTION 38. LETTER- WRITING. 

Read or recall Mrs. Hemans's poem, " The Landing of 
the Pilgrims." Select from it twenty words that are 
especially descriptive of this New World, and use them 
in writing letters as directed below. 

(a) Imagine that you are living in colonial times, 
and had come over in the Mayflower when you 
were twelve years old. Write a letter to your cousin 
back in Old England, telling him of this wonderful 
new country, — of its dangers, and the pleasures of 
the great freedom you enjoy. 

(b) Imagine you are living in Virginia in the 
early years of its history, and that you are a rela- 
tive of Captain John Smith. Write to a friend of 
the a(J venture which ended in Smith's rescue by 
Pocahontas. 

Remember : — 

1. the correct way to begin a letter; 

2. that the body of your letter should not be stiff 
and formal; 



234 COMPOSITION 

3. that there should be paragraphs in the letter; 

4. that a letter should be carefully punctuated. 

SECTION 39. CLASS DEBATE. 

Prepare for a debate, or discussion, in class, ol 
the topic given below. Review what you have read 
in your history about life in the two colonies, then 
decide which side of the question you will take, and 
prepare an outline for your discussion. It will be 
well to have the outline made up of the topic sen- 
tences which state definitely the reasons for your 
taking that side in the debate. 

Resolved : That life in the Jamestown colony was pre- 
ferable to life in the Plymouth colony. 

SECTION 40. COMPOSITION WRITING. 

(a) Write three paragraphs on this topic, taking 
either side : — 

Lord Baltimore deserves more commendation than 
William Penn for the wisdom and justice of his ad- 
ministration. 

(b) Write two paragraphs on the following topic, 
giving the reasons for the statement : — 

The policy of France in urging the Indians to fight the 
English was unworthy any great nation. 

(c) Possibly no event of American history thrills 
a youth more than the capture of Quebec by Wolfe. 
Write of it in six paragraphs, using the following 
outline : — 

1. The Campaign and the Arrival at Quebec. 

2. The Location of the City and the Difficulty ol 
Approach. 

3. The Long Delay, Preparations, and Night As- 
cent. 



STUDY OF ORATION 235 

4. Morning in the French Camp. 

5. The Battle. 

6. The Death of Wolfe. 

SECTION 41. COMPOSITION WRITING. 

(a) Write about " Our Tennis-Court," in four 
paragraphs. 

1. Laying Out the Court. 

(xive the dimensions so carefully that any one 
reading your essay can go ahead and lay out 
one himself. 

2. The Making of the Court. 

3. The Appearance of the Finished Court. 

4. The Pleasul*e We Have in Playing the Game. . 

(b) Treat in the same way any other sport that 
needs to be played on grounds prepared for it; as, 
football, baseball, croquet. 



U)IOMATIG SENTENCES FOR DRILL. 

We are older than he. Whom are you speaking of ? To 
whom shall I give this paper ? It was some one else that 
lost her ring. ^Anybody can come with his brother. 
Neither of the boys did his best. There were three eggs 
in the nest. Any one may have his paper if he will ask. 
Either of the girls drives well. Everybody wishes his 
children to be honored. 

SECTION 42. STUDY OF ORATION. 

AN APPEAL TO ARMS. 

Part of an Address delivered before the House of Burgesses in Virginia. 

If we wish to be free; if we mean to preserve inviolate 
those inestimable privileges for which we have been so 
long contending; if we mean not basely to abandon the 
noble struggle in which we have been so long engaged, 



236 COMPOSITION 

and which we have pledged ourselves never to abandon 
until the glorious object of our contest shall be obtained, 
— we must fight ! I repeat it, sir, — we must fight ! An 
appeal to arms, and to the God of hosts, is all that is left 
us. 

They tell us, sir, that we are weak, — unable to cope 
with so formidable an adversary. But when shall we be 
stronger ? Will it be the next week, or the next year "^ Will 
it be when we are totally disarmed, and when a British 
guard shall be stationed in every house } 

Sir, we are not weak, if we make a proper use of those 
means which the God of nature hath placed in our 
power. Three millions of people armed in the holy cause 
of liberty, and in such a country as that which we possess, 
are invincible by any force which our enemy can send 
against us. 

Besides, sir, we shall not fight our battles alone. There 
is a just God who presides over the destinies of nations, 
and who will raise up friends to fight our battles for us. 
The battle, sir, is not to the strong alone: it is to the 
vigilant, the active, the brave. Besides, sir, we have no 
election. If we were base enough to desire it, it is now too 
late to return from the contest. There is no retreat but in 
submission and slavery. Our chains are forged. Their 
clanking may be heard on the plains of Boston. The 
war is inevitable. And let it come ! I repeat it, sir, let it 
come! 

It is in vain, sir, to extenuate the matter. Gentlemen 
may cry peace, peace, but there is no peace. The war is 
actually begun. The next gale that sweeps from the north 
will bring to our ears the clash of resounding arms. Our 
brethren are already in the field. Why stand we here 
idle ? What is it that gentlemen wish ? What would they 
have ? Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be pur- 
chased at the price of chains and slavery ? Forbid it, 
Almighty God ! I know not what course others may take, 
but as for me, give me liberty, or give me death ! 

Patrick Henry. 



ESSAY WRITING 237 

There may be a number of words in the above selection 
with which you are not familiar. You must know just 
what all these words mean, in order to know just what 
Patrick Henry meant when he used them. After you are 
sure that you know the meaning of every word, fill the 
blanks in the following sentences, using suitable words 
from the selection : — 

I wish my word to be kept . There is no 



so as a bad habit. A man that knows he is right 

is . The of a nation lie in the hands of her 

youth. He is given no — in this matter. A brave 

man does not try to his faults. He knows that 

punishment of wrong-doing is . Be , be 

brave, be honest; your success is assured. 

Memorize the selection and recite it before the 
class. Speak it with vigor and force, as you think 
Patrick Henry spoke it. 

SECTION 43. ESSAY WRITING. 

Write a short essay upon one of the following 
topics : — 

(a) The Causes of the Revolutionary War. 

(b) There may come a time in the life of a boy (a man, 
or a nation) when the only honorable thing to do 
is to fight. 

Or; There can be no circumstances under which it can 
be considered honorable for a boy (a man, or a 
nation) to fight. 

(c) The hardest battles youth has to fight are those 
against self. 

Who strives against self and his comrades 

Will find a most powerful foe; 

All honor to him if he conquers; 

A cheer for the boy who says " No ! " 

There's many a battle fought daily 
The world knows nothing about; 



238 COMPOSITION 

There's many a brave little soldier 
Whose strength puts a legion to rout. 

Phcebe Gary. 

SECTION 44. STUDY OF NARRATION. 

"Children!" mamma's clear, sweet voice rang out 
pleasantly. *' Children ! children ! " 

But only the comical game chickens were scurrying 
around the yard on their long stilts of legs. No children. 
Mamma went back into the breakfast-room. 

" Where can the children be ? " she said. 

*' Gone to the Klondike, I believe," papa said calmly, 
without looking up from his paper. 

"Oh!" 

"Yes, I saw them equipping out in the barn just after 
breakfast. They were finely provisioned — " 

"Oh!" said mamma again. "That's why they all 
begged to carry their breakfasts out-of-doors — why, 
yes!" 

It was an hour or two before dinner when the miners 
came back and appeared before mamma in the kitchen. 
They were loaded down with big yellow pumpkins. 

"Nuggets," said Ferris briefly. 

" But why did you come back so soon — what in the 
world ! " exclaimed mamma. 

Ferris's eyes shone with fun, but there was a hint in his 
tone broader than the Yukon River. 

"We — we were starved out, ma'am," he murmured.^ 

This is the beginning and end of a short story. 
Do you know from reading the first part who are to 
be the principal actors in the story ? Is there any- 
thing to make you think that these children lived 
within a few years ? Do you know the time of day ? 
What tells you? Where do you think the story 

1 From The Little Gold Hunters^ by Annie H. Donnell. 



STUDY OF NARRATION 239 

happened, — in America, England, or in China ? 
What makes you think so? 

If you have read " A Christmas Carol," you will 
remember that the story told you right at the begin- 
ning who was the principal character, what time of 
year it was, and where the story happened. 

Now look at your reading-books or the literature 
you may be reading and see how often you find out, 
near the beginning, the who, the when, and the 
where of the stories. 

You have probably made up your minds what the 
middle of the story is from the beginning and end- 
ing given here. Do you think the ending good? 
With the beginning and the ending known, is it easy 
to make up the middle ? Then what would you do 
first in writing a story ? 

Study the following suggestions about narration, 
or story-writing : — 

1. Think your story clear through before beginning to 
write. Be sure that you know the point of your 
story, which will naturally come at the end, and is 
called the main incident. 

2. Remember that when the main incident is told the 
story should be done. Never go back after the point 
of a story has been told to tell of something you 
should have mentioned before. 

3. Tell everything that is necessary to make the end of 
your story possible, but do not tell anything more. 

4. In the beginning of a story, usually in the first few 
paragraphs of a short story, tell who the principal 
characters are, where the story happened, and when 
it happened. 

5. Make the beginning of your story interesting, by 
having some good thing to start off with. This is 
usually some bright conversation, or some especially 
attractive incident. 



240 COMPOSITION 

6. Make the incidents of your story go along rapidly; 
and have each incident depend on one that has pre- 
ceded. A string of things tied together by " and's " is 
always a poor story. 

SECTION 45. WRITING PARTS OF NARRATIVE. 

(a) Write what you think is the rest of the story 
entitled " The Little Gold Hunters," the beginning 
and end of which are given in Section 44. 

(b) Make up and write one incident which might 
have changed Scrooge from the man he was at first 
to the man we know at the end of " A Christmas 
Carol." 

SECTION 46. NARRATIVE COMPOSITION WRITING. 

Write on the subject, " My First Fish." 

1. The Announcement, Characters, Time, and Place, 
— Who? When? Where? 

How did you happen to go fishing ? Here is the way 
one story about fishing begins : — 

"'Hi, there, sister! I want to tell you something, — a 
secret; and you must n't tell David. He 's too small to go 
with us; he'd fall in,' called Frank. He was all out of 
breath; for ..." 

2. The Preparation. 

3. The Journey to the Place. 

4. The Sport. 

5. The Return. 

You might end the story with something like this: 
Certainly no prouder boy and girl ever returned from a 
fishing trip ; for had we not . . . etc. 

SECTION 47. NARRATIVE COMPOSITION WRITING. 

(a) Almost every child has played circus. Write 
about it, following this outline : — 

1. How we happened to have a circus. 

2. The assignment of the parts. 



NARRATIVE COMPOSITION WRITING 241 

3. The rehearsals. 

4. The great day. 

This will probably take three or four paragraphs. What 
was the crowning event ? Did it go ofl' well ? 

(b) Possibly you were one who gained admission 
by the payment of five pins. If so, use this out- 
line : — 

1. The announcement. 

How did you learn about the circus ? Did you 
see a handbill got up by the boys ? 

2. The days of anticipation. 

What rumors leaked out about the show ? 

3. The great day. 

(c) Possibly you had a play instead of a circus. 
Write about this if it suits you better. 

SECTION 48. NARRATIVE COMPOSITION WRITING. 

Before you try to write this story, the teacher will read 
to you Eugene Field's "The Gingham Dog and the 
Calico Cat," and Thomas Bailey Aldrich's "A Christmas 
Fantasy." 

Imagine that two of the animals in your Noah^s 
A.rk — things you hadn't played with for years, and 
iiad put away in the attic — had begun to quarrel 
and, at last, got into a terrible fight. It was long 
past midnight ; and their loud voices awakened you. 
In writing about this, do not fear to give your 
imagination full play. It will help you to make 
up a good story. 

THEIR LAST FIGHT. 

1. Your fright at the sudden awakening. 

2. The quarrel. 

Who ? when ? where ? In telling who, describe the 
combatants. 



242 COMPOSITION 

3. The challenge. 

4. The attack and the terrible fight. 

5. The result. 



IDIOMATIC SENTENCES FOR DRILL. 

A troop of noisy boys is playing in the street. Work 
and play are good for any one. Frank as well as Rob was 
invited. Neither of these trees is large enough. Each of 
the girls stands well. " Prue and I " has many vise say- 
ings. Either you or I are first in the class. '' Little Men " 
is full of interest. Liberty or death was the w^ish of Henry. 
Every one of them was laboring for the same end. The 
army of the Frost King has departed. Neither unkind 
truth nor untrue kindness was needed. 

SECTION 49. NARRATIVE COMPOSITION ^WRITING. 

On page 243 is a picture of an interesting young- 
ster. You can tell that he has just come from some 
pleasant pastime. Imagine that you meet him as Le 
rounds the corner, and that you ask him what he 
has been doing. Get him to tell the story to you. 
Do you have to ask a great many questions to get 
the story out of him ? 

Write the story that the boy in the picture tells 
you. Give it a suitable title. Begin by telling when 
and where you met him, and how you led him to tell 
you his story. 

In making up the story, remember how old he is, 
what he would be likely to do, and what kind of 
words a boy of his age would use. 

SECTION 50. NARRATIVE COMPOSITION WRITINa 

Every boy and girl should know the story of Paul 
Revere's Ride. If you have not read Longfellow's poem 
about it, your teacher will read it to you or tell you where 
you can find it. 




AN INTERESTING YOUNGSTER 



244 COMPOSITION 

Imagine that you, with your brother and sister, 
were at a neighbor's house the night Paul Revere 
rode through. You heard his cry. You heard the 
words spoken by the parents and children in the 
house. You left quickly to go home, for you knew 
that the rider had already passed your house. What 
did you say as you hurried home through the dark? 
How did your mother receive you? What did your 
father say and do? He left that night; for he be- 
longed to the Minute Men. 

Write the story of the night's experience. Include 
all the incidents suggested above ; and tell of your 
father's hasty preparation, the leave-taking, and the 
anxious conversation after he had gone. 

SECTION 51. STUDY OF POEMS AND PICTUKE. NARRA- 
TIVE COMPOSITION. 

WARREN'S ADDRESS TO THE AMERICAN SOLDIERS. 

Stand ! the ground 's your own, my braves ! 
Will ye give it up to slaves ? 
Will ye look for greener graves ? 

Hope ye mercy still ? 
What's the mercy despots feel? 
Hear it in that battle-peal! 
Read it on yon bristling steel I 

Ask it, — ye who will. 

Fear ye foes who kill for hire ? 
Will ye to your homes retire.'^ 
Look behind you! they're a-fire! 

And, before you, see 
Who have done it ! — From the vale 
On they come ! — And will ye quail ? — 
Leaden rain and iron hail 

Let their welcome be! 

In the God of battles trust! 

Die we may, — and die we must; 



COMPOSITION WRITING 245 

But, O, where eaii dust to dust 

Be eonsigned so well, 
As where Heaven its dews shall shed 
On the martyred patriot's bed. 
And the rocks shall raise their head, 

Of his deeds to tell ! 

John Pierpont. 

Memorize the poem given above ; and read, or 
listen to the reading of, Holmes's " Grandmother's 
Story of Bunker Hill Battle." ' On page 247 is a 
copy of a picture made by Howard Pyle to illustrate 
Holmes's poem. Look at the faces closely, and tell 
what you read there. Why are there no other men 
shown in the picture ? How far aw^ay is the terrible 
battle going on ? 

Imagine that you had an older brother in that 
battle, and that when you heard the noise of cannon 
that beautiful summer morning you rushed from the 
house to watch. Write the story of your imagined 
experience. Tell what you saw and how you felt as 
the conflict rose and fell. Did your brother come 
home that night? 

SECTION 52. COMPOSITION WRITING. 

If you have read Hale's " The Man Without a Coun- 
try," you will remember the decision of the Court "that 
you never hear the name of the United States again." 
The next paragraph reads, " Nolan laughed. But nobody 
else laughed. Old iVTorgan was too solemn, and the whole 
room was hushed dead as night in a minute. Even Nolan 
lost his swagger in a moment." Further on in the story 
Nolan says to his comrade, " Youngster, let that show 
you what it is to be without a family, without a home, and 
without a country. And if ever you are tempted to say a 



1 This poem can lie found in any complete edition of Holmes's poems, 
or in Number 6 of the Riverside Literature Series, price 15 cents. 



^^ 



246 COMPOSITION 

word or to do a thing that shall put a bar between you and 
your family, your home, and your country, pray God in 
his mercy to take you that instant home to his own 
heaven." 

(a) Many a lad has at some time been so angry 
with his sister that he has said that he wished he 
might never hear her name again. Suppose that you 
had done this, and your mother had quietly said, 
" All right, my boy, you shall not see sister nor hear 
her name for a week." Write the incident, following 
this outline : — 

1. The quarrel that made you so vexed with sister. 

2. The recital of the case to your mother, and her 
decision. 

3. The method of carrying out the sentence. 

4. Your thoughts as the week went on, and what 
you did. 

5. Your decision at the end of the week. 

(b) In the state house at Hartford there is a beau- 
tiful statue of one of Connecticut's heroes. It is the 
youth, Nathan Hale. Do you know the story of his 
life and hero's death ? If so, write it, using this out- 



line 



1. The two armies at New York, and Washington's 
great need. 

2. The difficulty in finding some one to go. 

3. Hale's offer, his disguise, and journey. 

4. His capture, and his last words. 

5. His heroic death. 

With calm brow, with steady brow, 

He listens to his doom; 

In his look there is no fear, 

Nor shadow-trace of gloom; 

But with calm brow and steady brow 

He robes him for the tomb. 




« 



■ Bell 




Pyle 



WATCHING THE BATTLE 



248 COMPOSITION 

'Neath the blue morn, the sunny morn, 

He dies upon the tree; 

And he mourns that he can lose 

But one life for liberty; 

And in the blue morn, the sunny morn. 

His spirit-wings are free. 

But his last words, his message words, 
They burn, lest friendly eye 
Should read how proud and calm 
A patriot could die. 
With his last words, his dying words, 
A soldier's battle-cry. 

Francis Miles Finch. 

SECTION 53. STUDY OF POEMS. COMPOSITION WEITING. 

THE AMERICAN FLAG. 

When Freedom, from her mountain height. 
Unfurled her standard to the air, 
She tore the azure robe of night, 
And set the stars of glory there! 
She mingled with its gorgeous dyes 
The milky baldric of the skies, 
And striped its pure celestial white 
With streakings of the morning light, 
Then, from his mansion in the sun, 
She called her eagle-bearer down, 
And gave into his mighty hand 
The symbol of her chosen land ! ^ 

Joseph Rodman Drake. 

THE FLAG GOES BY. 

Hats off! 

Along the street there comes 

A blare of bugles, a ruffle of drums, 

A flash of color beneath the sky: 

Hats off! 

The flag is passing by! 

1 First stanza of complete poem. 



COMPOSITION WRITING 249 

Blue and crimson and white it shines, 

Over the steel-tipped, ordered lines. 

Hats off! 

The colors before us fly; 

But more than the flag is passing by. 

Sea-fights and land-fights, grim and great. 
Fought to make and to save the State: 
Weary marches and sinking ships; 
Cheers of victory on dying lips; 

Days of plenty and years of peace ; 
March of a strong land's swift increase; 
Equal justice, right and law, 
Stately honor and reverend awe; 

Sign of a nation, great and strong 
To ward her people from foreign wrong: 
Pride and glory and honor, — all 
Live in the colors to stand or fall. 

Hats off! 

Along the street there comes 

A blare of bugles, a ruffle of drums; 

And loyal hearts are beating high: 

Hats off! 

The flag is passing by! 

Henry Holcomb Bennett. 

Commit to memory the stanza from " The Ameri- 
can Flag," and the whole of the poem, " The Flag 
Goes By." 

Near the end of "The Man Without a Country," 
these sentences occur : — 

" Well, I w^ent in, and there, to be sure, the poor fellow 
lay in his berth, smiling pleasantly as he gave me his 
hand, but looking very frail. I could not help a glance 
round, which showed me what a shrine he had made of 
the box he was lying in. The stars and stripes were triced 
up above and around a picture of Washington, and he 



250 COMPOSITION 

had painted a majestic eagle, with lightnings blazing 
from his beak and his foot just clasping the whole globe, 
which his wings overshadowed. The dear old boy saw my 
glance, and said, with a sad smile, ' Here, you see, I have 
a country!'" 

Write upon one of the following topics : — 

(a) How little we appreciate the blessings of Our 
Country ! 

(b) Not untill read "The Man Without a Country" 
did I begin to realize the rich blessing of being a 
man with a country that I can call my native land. 

(c) It would be a good custom if all of us, old and 
young, should lift our hats to salute our flag. 

(d) I can hardly understand how a man claiming to be 
an American citizen can use Old Glory for adver- 
tising his business. 

(e) No prettier or more fitting custom prevails in our 
land than that of placing flowers and flags upon 
the graves of our hero dead. 

SECTION 54. STUDY OF DESCRIi TION. 

1. His mother named him Harold, and named him 
better than she knew. He was just such a boy as one 
would expect to see bearing a heroic name. He had big, 
faded blue eyes, a nubbin of a chin, wide, wondering ears, 
and freckles, — such brown blotches of freckles, — on 
his face and neck and hands, such a milky way of them 
across the bridge of his snub nose that the boys called 
him "Mealy." And Mealy Jones it was to the end.^ 

William Allen White. 

2. There was one passenger in the coach, — a small 
dark-haired person in a glossy buff calico dress. She was 
so slender and so stiffly starched that she slid from space 
to space on the leather cushions, though she braced her- 
self against the middle seat with her feet and extended 
her cotton-gloved hands on each side, in order to maintain 

1 From The Court of Boyville. 



STUDY OF DESCRIPTION 251 

some sort of balance. Whenever the wheels sank farther 
than usual into a rut, or jolted suddenly over a stone, she 
bounded involuntarily into the air, came down again, 
pushed back her funny little straw hat, and picked up or 
settled more firmly a small pink sunshade, which seemed 
to be her chief responsibility — unless we except a bead 
purse, into which she looked whenever the condition of 
the roads would permit, finding a great apparent satisfac- 
tion in that its precious contents neither disappeared nor 
grew less.^ 

Kate Douglas Wiggin. 

3. I wiggled above the bulge at the risk of life, and was 
greeted at the mouth of the cavern with hisses and beak- 
snappings from within. It was a raw, spring day; snow 
still lingered in shady spots. But here, backed against the 
farther wall of the cavity, were two young owls, scarcely 
a week old, wrapped up like little Eskimos — tiny bun- 
dles of down that the whitest toothed frost could never 
bite through. Very green babies of all kinds are queer; 
but the greenest, homeliest, unlikeliest, babiest babes I 
ever encountered were these two in the hole.^ 

Dallas L. Sharp. 

Had the writer of the description really seen Harold ? 
the little girl, Rebecca ? the owls ? Was there a clear 
picture in the writer's mind of the thing described .^ What 
is the one thing most prominent in the description of 
Harold ? of Rebecca .^ of the owls ? Does each descrip- 
tion leave one clear impression ? Do all the details seem 
to fit ? How long is each description ? Select the words 
in these descriptions that seem to you especially good. 

Study the following suggestions for writing de- 
scriptions : — 

1. The first thing in writing a description is to see. No 
two trees, no two cats, no two boys look just alike. Every- 

1 From Rebecca of Sunnyhrook Farm. Copyright, 1903, by Kate Doug- 
las Riggs. 

^ From A Watc?ier in the Woods. 



252 COMPOSITION 

body knows that cats have four legs, a nose, and a tail. So 
if only these things were mentioned, no description would 
be given. But if you looked closely and saw that " one of 
Spitfire's paws was snow-white, as if he took special pains 
with his bath every morning," you have seen something 
that makes him different from other cats. Find the one 
thing or many things that make one object look different 
from all others. Tell of these; they make the descrip- 
tion. 

2. Keep your point of view. By point of view is meant 
the place where you stand to see the object you describe. 
Writing a description is like taking a picture : if you take 
a view of the front of the house, the back cannot be seen. 
If the photographer wished to have a picture of both 
front and back, he would move his camera. So if you 
wished to describe both the front and back of a house, 
you would write one description, then tell that you had 
moved around to the back of the house, and write the 
other. For example: "We crept breathlessly into the 
small opening among the oak-trees, and there, gray and 
silent, was the back end of the old Dow house, where the 
ghost clanked his sword every night." Then follows the 
description of this part of the house. Next : " Creeping 
stealthily behind the hazel bushes, we came around to the 
front of the house." Then the front is described. These 
short sentences, indicating the change in the point of 
view, are just like setting up a camera for a picture. If 
necessary, make two or more pictures ; but be sure to tell 
where you are in each case. Do not confuse your pictures ; 
keep your point of view. 

3. Select the proper characteristics or details. Every 
object you describe arouses some feeling in you. It pleases, 
it vexes, it satisfies, it amuses, it surprises, or it angers 
you. Find out the characteristics that cause this feeling. 
Include these in the description, and no others. Again, 
select only the prominent details. Four or five, made so 
clear that every reader sees them, are better than a host 
of indistinct details. 

4. Arrange the details of your description in some 



DESCRIPTIVE WRITING 253 

definite order. When you see any object you notice some 
feature first, and the other details are seen in some order 
from this one. For example, if you see a man near by, you 
notice his face first; but you would not next look at his 
shoes, and then at his necktie. Details should be men- 
tioned in the order in which they would naturally be 
seen. 

5. Make your descriptions short. One hundred words 
are usually enough; fifty are often better. Select your 
words with care, so that every one tells something. One 
good word is worth twenty "pretty good" words. 

SECTION 55. DESCRIPTIVE "WHITING. 

Write a description of Spitfire, the kitten : — 

(a) about to spring at a ball of string; 

(b) frightened; 

(c) come to grief; 

(d) asleep; or, 

(e) caught in the act. 

You will find it easier to get started with a description 
if you give a sentence or two telling how you happened to 
see the thing you describe. Notice the paragraph about 
the owls in Section 54 ; the sentences about the Dow house. 



IDIOMATIC SENTENCES FOR DRILL. 

Some one has stolen the rake. The teacher rang the 
bell. The dog began to eat his dinner. Jamie saw a rain- 
bow. The bird has flown. General Grant always did his 
best. She sat by the window. Set the plant in the sun- 
light. One child lay on the grass asleep. I shall lie in the 
hammock. He laid his fishing-rod in the boat. Jennie 
drank some salt water. Her fingers were frozen. 

SECTION 56. DESCRIPTIVE WRITING. 

You have seen a dog when he almost asked you 
to pick up a stick or a stone and throw it into the 



254 COMPOSITION 

water for him to get. How did he speak to you ? 
Or possibly he brought you a croquet-ball or a block 
and laid it at your feet, asking you to roll it. 

Write a description of the dog, as he stands 
there, looking into your face, and waiting. Do not 
tell of the game you had with him. 

SECTION 57. DESCRIPTIVE WHITING. 

Write a description of some bird or animal you 
have seen while hunting, or when visiting a zoolog- 
ical garden or menagerie. 

(a) Rover had been barking a long while, and I knew 
there was something unusual exciting him. I crept very 
carefully through the thick underbrush, hoping that I 
should not frighten whatever it might be. What was my 
surprise to find ! (Tell what, and describe it.) 

(b) I had seen many pictures of lions and had often 
fancied how they looked. Now I found myself right 
before the lion's cage. (Describe the lion.) 

SECTION 58. DESCRIPTIVE WRITING. 

(a) Describe the Dow house, referred to in Sec- 
tion 54, from two points of view. Use the two sen- 
tences given in that section, or similar ones, to show 
the change in your position. 

(b) Describe your study-room as it appears to you 
when in different moods : once when you are happy, 
and again when you are much distressed. 

I always study in ... . Today when I came home, 
the dear room looked so bright and cheerful, for had 
I not made good recitations in every class ! 

Today when I went home, I was all out of sorts. 
Everything had gone wrong. (What had happened ?) 
When I went upstairs to my room, it seemed to me like 
a dismal old prison 



COMPOSITION WRITING 255 

SECTION 59. DESCRIPTIVE WRITINa 

Write a description of some person. The old 
schoolmaster in the picture " Kept In/' on page 207, 
is a good subject. The happy youngster, on page 
243, is a line fellow to describe. Other good ones 
are A Street Musician, The Pop-Corn Man, A Tramp, 

Our Policeman, My Grandmother, Aunt , 

Cousin , or any members of your family that 

have strong characters. Before writing, study the de- 
scriptions at the beginning of Section 54. Notice 
how few things are told in those descriptions, and 
how well they are said. 



IDIOMATIC SENTENCES FOR DRILL. 

Those chickens belong to Mr. Jones. I do not Hke this 
kind of grapes. I have been absent the last two days. 
Read the first three pages. Which is taller, Mary or I ? 
How are you this morning ? Very well, I thank you. 
(Never say "Nicely, thank you." The whole sentence 
would read, I am nicely; and that is very bad.) We are 
almost there. It was very painful. The milk smells 
sweet. The hat looks pretty. Madame Blauvelt sings 
almost as well as Nordica. The book can be shared 
between you and Fred. There was but one tardiness 
among us all. This piece is different from that. I left my 
music at home. She neither laughed nor talked all the 
evening. Try to study music. Do it as I do. I shall not go 
unless he goes. I don't know whether I can go. He is as 
tall as you, or taller. 

SECTION 60. COMPOSITION -WRITING ON TOPICS 
SUGGESTED BY POEMS AND PICTURE. 

Breathes there the man, with soul so dead. 
Who never to himself hath said, 
This is my own, my native land? 



256 COMPOSITION 

Whose heart hath ne'er within him burned 
As home his footsteps he hath turned 

From wandering on a foreign strand ? 
If such there breathe, go, mark him well; 
For him no minstrel raptures swell; 
High though his titles, proud his name, 
Boundless his wealth as wish can claim, — 
Despite those titles, power, and pelf. 
The v/retch, concentred all in self, 
Living, shall forfeit fair renown, 
And, doubly dying, shall go down 
To the vile dust from whence he sprung, 
Unwept, unhonored, and unsung.^ 

Sir Walter ScotTc 

Thou, too, sail on, O Ship of State! 

Sail on, O Union, strong and great! 

Humanity with all its fears. 

With all the hopes of future years, 

Is hanging breathless on thy fate! 

We know what Master laid thy keel. 

What workmen wrought thy ribs of steel. 

Who made each mast, and sail, and rope, 

What anvils rang, what hammers beat, 

In what a forge and what a heat 

Were shaped the anchors of thy hope! 

Fear not each sudden sound and shock, 

'T is of the wave and not the rock ; 

'T is but the flapping of the sail. 

And not a rent made by the gale! 

In spite of rock and tempest's roar. 

In spite of false lights on the shore. 

Sail on, nor fear to breast the sea! 

Our hearts, our hopes, are all with thee. 

Our hearts, our hopes, our prayers, our tears, 

Our faith triumphant o'er our fears. 

Are all with thee, — are all with thee ! ^ 

Longfellow. 

1 From The Lay of the Last Minstrel, Canto VI. 

2 From The Building of the Shij). 




FOR FATHERLAND 



258 COMPOSITION 

On page 257, is a picture of a beautiful statue, 
named " For Fatherland." It stands for a deep 
thought. In any country what would manhood do in 
defense of its fatherland? Write two paragraphs 
about the picture, — one telling a person that has 
not seen it how it looks ; the other telling the 
thought that is the soul of this beautiful group. 

Write a paragraph on one of the following topics: 

(a) If we should again be called to defend our land 
from a foreign foe, millions of young men would 
spring to arms, rejoicing in the opporttmity of 
showing their love for fatherland. 

(b) How much one man can do, even in times of peace, 
to exalt a nation before the whole world is shown 
in the glorious achievements of our honored Presi- 
dent. 

(c) In peace, as in war, a nation needs high-minded, 
courageous men to defend and uphold her sacred 
honor. 



RULES FOR CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATION. 

L A Capital Letter is used to begin: — 

1. the first word of every sentence; 

2. proper nouns, and most words derived from proper nouns T 

3. the first word of a direct quotation; 

4. the words I and O; 

5. the first word of a Une of poetry; 

6. names of months, holidays, and days of the week; 

7. names applied to the Deity; 

8. the first word and every important word of a title ; 

9. an abbreviation, if the entire word should begin with a 

capital ; 
ID. the name of a point of the compass when used to denote a 

section of the country; 
II. the greeting and the complimentary close of a letter. 

II. A Period is used to close : — 

1. a statement, a command, or a wish, except when suddeiir 

strong feeling is expressed; 

2. an abbreviation or an initial; 

3. a letter-heading, a signature, or a title used alone. 

III. A Question Mark follows every direct question. 

iV. An Exclamation Mark is used to close every expression of 
sudden, strong feeling. It is generally used after interjec- 
tions and the exclamatory form of sentences. 

V. A Comma or Commas should be used to separate: — 

1. words and expressions used in a series, unless all the con- 

necting words are expressed; 

2. the name of the person or thing addressed from the rest of 

the sentence ; 

3. an appositive from the word it modifies; 

4. adjectives in the appositive position from the noun they 

modify ; 

5. words, phrases, or clauses, either explanatory or paren- 

thetical, from the rest of the sentence ; 

6. phrases and clauses out of their natural order from the rest 

of the sentence ; 

7. a short, informal quotation from the words of the author ; 

8. the propositions of a compound sentence, if they are 

simple ; 

9. a clause from the main proposition of a complex sentence, 

if the relation is loose, or if the clause is long ; 



260 COMPOSITION 

10. the words Yes and No from the rest of a sentence; 

11, the items of a letter-heading, date, and address. 

VI. A Semicolon is used : — 

1. to separate the propositions of a compound sentence, if they 
are long, or if the propositions themselves contain com- 
mas, or in most cases when the connective is omitted ; 

2. to follow the words of an author, when these words are 
inserted between the independent propositions of a broken 
quotation. 

VII. An Apostrophe is used to indicate : — 

1. possession; 

2. the omission of letters in contractions. 

Vni. Quotation Marks should inclose : — 

1. every direct quotation; 

2. each part of a broken quotation. 

IX. Quotation Marks should not inclose an indirect quotation. 



lAAY 3 1909 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



llillllllillllllillll 

003 244 248 1 



